The Role of Social Comparisons in Perceived Parental Competence, Mental Health, and Relationship Satisfaction

The theory of social comparison suggests that all individuals are naturally driven to evaluate and compare their opinions and abilities with those of similar others to varying degrees. Social comparison behavior is associated with negative outcomes impacting mental health and relationship satisfaction, with the prevalence of social-media use providing an increased opportunity to engage in social comparisons. Most of the research on the impact of this behavior has been conducted with young-adult populations, overlooking other populations, such as parents. The limited research in this area suggests that parents, particularly mothers, who engage in social comparisons experience increased depression, are less satisfied in their parenting relationships, and have lower perceived parental competence. In addition, parents may be more susceptible to engaging in social comparisons because research suggests that times of stress and change, such as becoming a parent, increase social comparison behavior. The current study examines how engaging in social comparisons impacts mental health, relationship satisfaction, and perceived parental competence within a parent population. Of the participants, 184 met the inclusion criteria and completed a survey. Results indicate that parents who reported a higher frequency of engaging in social comparisons reported less parental competence, higher symptoms of social and generalized anxiety, and higher levels of depression. Upward and downward social comparisons are associated with generalized and social anxiety, and depression. No statistically significant results were found for frequency or direction of social comparisons impacting relationship satisfaction. Clinical implications of the findings and future directions are discussed

Connecting and Disconnecting : Information and Communication Technology in Family Relationships

Information and communication technology (ICT), most notably smartphones and social media, have transformed human social interaction. In this thesis, I examine how ICT has been appropriated in families and what effects it has on family relationships. I use two distinct approaches to answer these questions. The first approach is to systematically review the research concerning ICT use and outcomes for family relationships (Article I). Second, I use population-based data from the Generational Transmissions in Finland (Gentrans) survey’s third wave and statistical methods to examine digital communication in two Finnish family generations (Articles II–IV). The data include 2,663 older adults (68–74 years) and 1,945 young to middle-aged adults (19–56 years). The systematic review (Article I) categorizes the existing research based on ICT use types (personal use, “technoference,” communication, and co-use) and according to relationship type (romantic relationship, parent-child relationship, and siblings). The review shows that frequent personal ICT use and technoference undermine relationship quality. Romantic relationships are impacted most negatively due to ICT-induced infidelity and jealousy. In contrast, co-use of ICT mostly benefits family relationships. This also applies to communication via ICT, however, media vary in how strongly they are associated with positive relationship outcomes. Based on the systematic review, I argue that across use types, the negative effects of IC on family relationships are more salient than the positive. The articles that are based on the Gentrans data (Articles II–IV) reveal novel information about Finnish adults’ ICT use in two family generations. Article II examines the relationship between digital communication and traditional methods of communication (e.g., meeting face-to-face and phone calls). Two opposing hypotheses, the reinforcement and displacement hypotheses, are plotted against each other. The former predicts a positive relationship between digital and traditional forms of communication, and the latter predicts a negative association. Using linear regression, the hypotheses are tested separately for a range of family relationship types across the two family generations (e.g., parent-child, grandparent-grandchild, siblings). The results refute the displacement hypothesis, showing that digital communication reinforces other forms of communication. In other words, digital methods appear to have taken a complementary role in family communication. Article III identifies predictors of social media adoption in the two family generations. In addition, the study examines whether social media adoption in older adults is predicted by the social media adoption of their adult children. The Gentrans data enable the study of this question because actual parent-child dyads are identifiable. The results from the logistic regressions replicate earlier findings showing that, for example, being female and more highly educated predicts social media use; however, the influence of gender and education is less pronounced among older adults. Furthermore, the number of children predicts social media use, as doethe social media use of an adult child. The study highlights that social media adoption, especially among older adults, is contingent on family factors, namely, the number of children and whether the older adults’ children have adopted social media. Last, Article IV estimates the effect of social media contact (SMC) with family members on happiness using two methods: the linear regression and propensity score matching (PSM) approaches. The PSM method is used to improve the credibility of causal inferences. SMC is examined in a range of family relationships across the two family generations. Based on the socioemotional selectivity theory, we hypothesize that SMC with family members increases happiness among older adults. The study finds that SMC with family members can be a source of happiness in some specific dyads and ages; however, the results do not find older adults specifically to be affected. In addition to the empirical sections, I discuss digital divides (i.e., inequalities related to ICTs). I examine the extent to which ICT-related inequalities manifest ior are contingent on, family relationships. All of the articles provide insight intdigital divides. First, the systematic review (Article I) finds evidence of the unequal distribution of positive and negative ICT-related outcomes based on family background and relationship type. Second, the Finnish studies (Articles II–IV) suggest that ICT reinforces communication mainly among those with higher baseline communication and that ICT adoption among (older) adults is partly determined by family support. The family perspective has rarely been addressed in the digital divid literature. The conclusions of this thesis highlight the roles that family relationships play in digital divides. To conclude, ICT has brought both benefits and challenges to family relationships, which manifest differently across generations and types of family relationships. For future research, this dissertation outlines the research emphases so far and points to gaps. In addition, it makes an opening contribution by discussing family perspectives in digital inequalities. The results have implications for the general public regarding their daily digital choices and can be used to promote digital well-being and digital inclusion in society.--- Informaatio- ja viestintäteknologia (engl. information and communication technology, ICT), erityisesti älypuhelimet ja sosiaalinen media, ovat muokanneet vahvasti ihmisten vuorovaikutusta. Väitöskirjassani tutkin, miten ko. teknologioita käytetään perheissä ja millaisia vaikutuksia niillä on perhesuhteiden laatuun. Käytän kahta keskenään erilaista lähestymistapaa. Ensiksi, väitöskirjan ensimmäisessä artikkelissa (I) esitellään systemaattinen tutkimuskatsaus, jossa kootaan ja arvioidaan vertaisarvioitua tutkimusta teknologian vaikutuksista perhesuhteisiin. Toiseksi, kolme muuta artikkelia (II–IV) perustuvat suomalaiseen kansallisesti edustavan Gentrans-postikyselyaineiston kolmanteen aaltoon ja kvantitatiivisiin menetelmiin. Näissä kolmessa artikkelissa tutkitaan digitaalista kommunikaatiota suurten ikäluokkien (2 663 osallistujaa; 68–74-vuotiaita) sekä heidän aikuisten lastensa (1 945 osallistujaa; 19–56-vuotiaita) perhesuhteissa. Systemaattisessa tutkimuskatsauksessa (artikkeli I) luokitellaan tutkimusta ensinnäkin sen perusteella, millaisessa sosiaalisessa kontekstissa ICT:tä käytetään (oma käyttö, ”teknohäiriö”, kommunikaatio ja yhteiskäyttö) sekä toisaalta tutkitun perhesuhdetyypin mukaan (parisuhde, vanhempi-lapsisuhde, sisarussuhde ja määrittelemätön perhesuhde). Tutkimuskatsauksessa osoitetaan, että runsas oma käyttö ja teknohäiriö heikentävät perhesuhteita. Vaikutus on voimakkainta parisuhteissa, koska niihin vaikuttavat teknologian mahdollistaman uskottomuuden ja mustasukkaisuuden erityiset paineet. Sen sijaan ICT:n yhteiskäyttö ja kommunikaatio enimmäkseen hyödyttävät perhesuhteita, mutta huomionarvoista on, että eri viestintämenetelmät eroavat siinä, kuinka rikasta (rich) viestintää ne välittävät. Tutkimuskatsauksen johtopäätöksenä esitän, että ICT:n kielteiset vaikutukset perhesuhteisiin ovat näkyvämpiä kuin myönteiset. Gentrans-aineistoon perustuvissa artikkeleissa (II–IV) tuodaan uutta tietoa suomalaisten aikuisten ICT:n käytöstä kahdessa eri perhesukupolvessa. Artikkelissa II tutkitaan digitaalisten ja perinteisten yhteydenpitotapojen (esim. kasvokkain tapaamiset ja puhelut) suhdetta. Tutkimuksessa testataan kahta vastakkaista hypoteesia: vahvistamishypoteesia ja syrjäyttämishypoteesia. Näistä ensimmäinen ennustaa, että digitaaliset menetelmät ovat lisänneet perinteistä yhteydenpitoa; jälkimmäinen puolestaan ennustaa, että perinteiset yhteydenpitotavat ovat vähentyneet digitaalisten menetelmien lisäännyttyä. Hypoteesien testaamisessa hyödynnetään Gentrans-aineiston molempia perhesukupolvia ja hypoteesia testataan useissa perhesuhteissa (vanhempi-lapsisuhteessa, sisarusten välillä jne.) lineaarisella regressiolla. Tulokset eivät tue syrjäyttämishypoteesia eli sitä, että digitaaliset menetelmät syrjäyttäisivät muita yhteydenpitotapoja. Sen sijaan digitaalinen yhteydenpito näyttäisi ottaneen täydentävän roolin perheenjäsenten välisessä yhteydenpidossa. Artikkelissa III tunnistetaan tekijöitä, jotka ennustavat sosiaalisen median omaksumista kahdessa eri perhesukupolvessa. Tämän lisäksi tutkimuksessa selvitetään, ennustaako nuoremman perhesukupolven edustajan sosiaalisen median omaksuminen myös tämän vanhempaa perhesukupolvea edustavan äidin/isän sosiaalisen median omaksumista. Gentrans-aineisto mahdollistaa tällaisen selvityksen, koska aineistossa toisilleen sukua olevien vanhempien ja aikuisten lasten vastaukset ovat liitettävissä toisiinsa. Logistisen regression tulokset toistavat aiempien tutkimusten tuloksia: naiset ja korkeasti koulutetut käyttävät todennäköisemmin sosiaalista mediaa kuin miehet ja matalammin koulutetut. Nämä vaikutukset kuitenkin laimenevat vanhempien vastaajien keskuudessa. Lisäksi mitä enemmän lapsia vastaajalla on, sitä todennäköisemmin hän on myös sosiaalisen median käyttäjä. Lopuksi: vanhemman perhesukupolven edustajan sosiaalisen median omaksumista ennusti tämän aikuisen lapsen sosiaalisen median omaksuminen. Tutkimus osoittaa, että sosiaalisen median omaksuminen erityisesti ikääntyvien keskuudessa riippuu osittain heidän perhesuhteistaan: tarkalleen ottaen heidän lastensa lukumäärästä ja siitä, käyttävätkö nämä aikuiset lapset sosiaalista mediaa. Viimeisenä artikkelissa IV tutkitaan kahdella eri menetelmällä, onko sosiaalisen median kautta tapahtuvalla yhteydenpidolla (social media contact, SMC) perheenjäseneen vaikutusta onnellisuuteen. Käytetyt menetelmät ovat lineaarinen regressio ja propensity score matching -menetelmä, joista jälkimmäisen avulla on mahdollista tehdä vahvempia kausaalipäätelmiä. Yhteydenpitoa eri perheenjäseniin (tyttäreen, poikaan, siskoon jne.) tutkitaan erikseen. Tutkimus ennusti sosioemotionaalisen valintateorian (socioemotional selectivity theory) perusteella, että SMC perheenjäsenten välillä lisäisi onnellisuutta erityisesti ikääntyvien keskuudessa. Tulokset osoittivat, että SMC perheenjäsenten kanssa voi joissakin tietyissä perhesuhteissa ja ikävaiheissa lisätä onnellisuutta, mutta tulokset eivät tue sosioemotionaalisesta valintateoriasta johdettua hypoteesia siitä, että erityisesti ikääntyvien onnellisuus lisääntyisi perheenjäsenten keskinäisestä yhteydenpidosta. Sitä vastoin tulokset osoittivat, että nuoremmassa perhesukupolvessa SMC:llä on joissakin perhesuhteissa onnellisuutta lisäävä vaikutus. Artikkelien päätulosten lisäksi käsittelen tässä väitöskirjassa digitaalista eriarvoisuutta (digital divides). Pohdin, millä tavoilla digitaalista eriarvoisuutta syntyy perhekontekstissa. Systemaattisessa tutkimuskatsauksessa (artikkeli I) esitetään, miten ICT:n myönteiset ja kielteiset vaikutukset jakautuvat epätasaisesti erilaisille perheille ja perhesuhdetyypeille. Lisäksi suomalaiseen aineistoon perustuvissa tutkimuksissa (artikkelit II–IV) näytetään, että ICT hyödyttää perheyhteydenpidossa lähinnä niitä, joilla yhteydenpito on muutenkin runsasta. Viimeiseksi ICT:n omaksuminen ikääntyvillä on todennäköisempää niillä, jotka saavat tukea nuoremmilta perheenjäseniltä. Väitöskirjan päätelmissä esitän, että artikkelien (I–IV) tulosten perusteella perhesuhteet ja perhetaustat ovat digitaalisia eriarvoisuuksia konstruoivia tekijöitä. Yhteenvetona esitän, että ICT on tuonut sekä hyötyjä että haasteita perhesuhteisiin, jotka näyttäytyvät erilaisina sukupolvesta ja perhesuhdetyypistä riippuen. Tulevia tutkimuksia hyödyttävät tässä väitöskirjassa esiin tuodut tähänastisen tutkimuksen painotukset ja puutteet. Lisäksi tämä väitöskirja on tehnyt uuden avauksen digitaalisia kuiluja koskevaan keskusteluun käsittelemällä digitaalisen eriarvoisuuden perhenäkökulmia, jotka ovat tähän asti puuttuneet keskustelusta. Tulosten helppo sovellettavuus yksilöiden päivittäisiin digivalintoihin tekee tuloksista laajalle yleisölle kiinnostavia. Tuloksista on hyötyä myös yhteiskunnalliseen digitaaliseen hyvinvointiin ja osallisuuteen liittyvässä päätöksenteossa

Instagram Use, InstaMums, and Anxiety in Mothers of Young Children

The emergence of social media has revolutionised communication and has had a profound effect on many aspects of motherhood. Image-centric social media, despite its overwhelming popularity, has faced much criticism for over idealistic portrayals and the pressures it may place on women throughout pregnancy and the early years of their child’s life. This research aimed to determine whether a significant relationship exists between postnatal anxiety and Instagram usage in mothers with young children. The associational, cross-sectional design uses a sample of 210 mothers, aged 22-45, who have one or more children aged under five. An online questionnaire measured anxiety, Instagram usage, and several potentially moderating traits. We found that the relationship between anxiety and online engagement with InstaMums – mothers made famous by Instagram – was moderated by both social comparison orientation and self-esteem. Engagement with InstaMums was associated with greater anxiety in those with higher social comparison orientation; it was also associated greater anxiety in those with lower self-esteem. These findings are discussed in connection with social comparison theory, implications for healthy social media use, as well as avenues for future research

Associations between social support, mental wellbeing, self-efficacy and technology use in first-time antenatal women: data from the BaBBLeS cohort study

Background: Information and communication technologies are used increasingly to facilitate social networks and support women during the perinatal period. This paper presents data on how technology use affects the association between women’s social support and, (i) mental wellbeing and, (ii) self-efficacy in the antenatal period. Methods: Data were collected as part of an ongoing study - the BaBBLeS study - exploring the effect of a pregnancy and maternity software application (app) on maternal wellbeing and self-efficacy. Between September 2016 and February 2017, we aimed to recruit first-time pregnant women at 12–16 gestation weeks in five maternity sites across England and asked them to complete questionnaires. Outcomes included maternal mental wellbeing (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale), and antenatal self-efficacy (antenatal version of the Tool to Measure Parenting Self-Efficacy). Other variables assessed were perceived social support (Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support), general technology use (adapted from Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale). Potential confounders were age, ethnicity, education, socioeconomic deprivation, employment, relationship status and recruitment site. Linear regression models were developed to analyse the relationship between social support and the outcomes. Results: Participants (n = 492, median age = 28 years) were predominantly white British (64.6%). Half of them had a degree or higher degree (49.3%), most were married/living with a partner (83.6%) and employed (86.2%). Median (LQ-UQ) overall scores were 81.0 (74.0–84.0) for social support (range 12–84), 5.1 (4.7–5.4) for technology use (range 1–6), 54.0 (48.0–60.0) for mental well-being (range 14–70), and 319.0 (295.5–340) for self-efficacy (range 0–360). Social support was significantly associated with antenatal mental well-being adjusting for confounders [adj R2 = 0.13, p < .001]. The addition of technology use did not alter this model [adj R2 = 0.13, p < .001]. Social support was also significantly associated with self-efficacy after adjustment [adj R2 = 0.14, p < .001]; technology had limited impact on this association [adj R2 = 0.13, p < .001]. Conclusions: Social support is associated with mental well-being and self-efficacy in antenatal first-time mothers. This association was not significantly affected by general technology use as measured in our survey. Future work should investigate whether pregnancy-specific technologies yield greater potential to enhance the perceived social support, wellbeing and self-efficacy of antenatal women

Mindful Parenting and Parent Technology Use: Examining the Intersections and Outlining Future Research Directions

Popular media attention and scientific research in both mindful parenting and technology use in the context of parenting has expanded in the 21st century; however, these two streams of research have largely evolved separately from one another. Thus, in this conceptual paper, we integrate the research on mindful parenting with that on parents’ technology use and parenting to examine how parent technology use may impact or be linked with aspects of mindful parenting. Mindful parenting theory outlines five key components: listening with full attention, self-regulation in the parent–child relationship, emotional awareness of self and child, nonjudgmental acceptance of self and child, and compassion for self and child. Parent technology use, in particular the use of mobile devices, has the potential to impact all five elements of mindful parenting. However, the relationship between mindful parenting and technology is complex, and there can be both positive and negative implications of parent technology use on mindful parenting. On the positive side, technology use might help parents regulate their emotions; access support; and develop more empathy, acceptance, and compassion for themselves and their children. Yet, parent technology use also has the potential to create distractions and disrupt parent–child interactions, which may make it more difficult for parents to listen with full attention, maintain awareness of their own and their child’s emotions, and calmly respond to child behaviors with intentionality. Technology use may also create more opportunities for social comparisons and judgement, making it more difficult for parents to accept their children nonjudgmentally and have compassion for their children as they are. Future research is needed to understand the conditions under which technology use can hinder or promote mindful parenting and how interventions can promote mindful parenting skills and a positive uses of technology

The effects of Instagram's idealized portrayals of motherhood on new mothers' well-being

Similar to how early mass media idealized the experience of motherhood through content such as celebrity mother profiles in magazines, social media is now disseminating idealized portrayals of motherhood that may be putting increased pressures on mothers and negatively affecting their mental health. This study was designed to examine if and how Instagram posts portraying motherhood have an impact on new mothers' well-being. The study argues that by depicting motherhood, these Instagram posts are motivationally relevant for new mothers and thereby increase activation of the mothers' appetitive motivational system and the cognitive resources allocated to processing the posts. An experimental design was employed to test the causal effects of the idealization (i.e., whether the motherhood portrayals are idealized or non-idealized) and source (i.e., whether the portrayals are from a mommy influencer or an everyday mother) of these motherhood portrayals. A total of 464 new mothers were exposed to 20 Instagram posts portraying motherhood. The findings showed that new mothers make greater social comparisons to Instagram motherhood portrayals that are non-idealized (rather than idealized) and from everyday social media mothers (rather than mommy influencers). The mothers in the study perceived greater similarity to these posts (the non-idealized, everyday mother posts) and, as a result, paid greater attention to these posts, which, in turn, increased their recognition memory of the post content. That said, while social comparisons were higher for the non-idealized portrayals, the idealized portrayals were found to have greater negative effects on the well-being of new mothers, as envy and state anxiety were significantly higher after exposure to the idealized posts. This study also provides evidence that particular characteristics of new mothers interact with the portrayals to influence the effects of the posts. For example, the findings show that mothers with low self-esteem are more susceptible to idealized portrayals of motherhood causing lowered life satisfaction, and mothers who are highly inclined to make social comparisons are more susceptible to idealized portrayals of motherhood causing lowered feelings of parental competence.Includes bibliographical references

Postnatal Depressive Symptoms and Social Media Use for Support amongst Mothers and Fathers within the First Year Postpartum

Postnatal depression (PND) can have substantial detrimental effects on the wellbeing and adjustment of mothers and fathers, and ultimately on the development of infants. Whilst many parents have chosen to use social media for parenting support and information, it is unclear what role postnatal mental health plays in digital behaviours. This doctoral research aimed to investigate the impact of maternal and paternal PND symptoms on social media usage and perceived social support, gain a detailed insight into the function of social media in parental adjustment, and examine gender differences in online language related to PND. The current research consisted of five individual studies, and it employed a mixed-methods approach, utilising quantitative (self-reported questionnaires), qualitative (semi-structured interviews) and corpus-linguistic techniques to analyse data collected from mothers and fathers with at least one baby under one year old. The results from the quantitative studies indicated that mothers and fathers with higher risk of PND were more likely to engage in online comparisons with other parents, and to report lower levels of perceived social support, compared to parents with low risk of PND. The qualitative studies revealed that parents identified social media sites as advantageous in connecting with other parents and receiving night-time support, as well as disadvantageous due to unreliable information, curated content, and an imbalance in the maternal versus paternal-specific resources. Finally, the fifth study utilised a corpus-linguistic analysis of PND-related Twitter content and revealed that there were gender differences in the language used to discuss PND online. Female Twitter users were found to be more likely to discuss PND from a personal perspective, with the use of adjectives that express difficulty, whereas male Twitter users were focused on the PND experiences of other parents. Twitter accounts representing organisations, such as charities, medical or educational institutions, were considerably more inclined to post content focused on motherhood or maternal PND, with limited content related to fatherhood or paternal PND. Overall, this doctoral research indicated that PND symptoms have a clear impact on digital behaviours and perceived support amongst parents, and that there are problematic discrepancies within the accessibility of maternal and paternal online support. The findings have important clinical and practical implications for improved perinatal healthcare practice, policy change, postnatal mental health awareness, as well as technological additions, in the form of evidence-based online parenting platforms

Digitaalinen hyvinvointi perheissä : Suomi hyvin käytetyn ajan mallimaaksi

Digitalisaatiossa Suomi on ollut muutoksen kärjessä, mutta sen vaikutuksista arkeen ja hyvinvointiin tiedetään vielä vähän. Käytössä olevat kansalliset mittarit eivät tuota tietoa digitaalisten medioiden vaikutuksista hyvinvointiin. Digitaalinen hyvinvointi perheissä -hanke on koonnut systemaattisen tutkimuskatsauksen digitaalisten medioiden vaikutuksista perhesuhteissa ja tuottanut uutta tietoa digitaalisesta yhteydenpidosta Suomessa. Tutkimukset osoit-tavat, että ajankäyttö ja sosiaaliset suhteet ovat 2010-luvulla kokeneet murroksen. Digitaaliset mediat ovat helpotta-neet kommunikointia, mutta samalla luoneet haasteita läheissuhteisiin. Lisäksi on viitteitä siitä, että digitalisaation haitat ja hyödyt kasautuvat perheiden eriarvoisuutta lisäävästi. Hankkeessa tuotettiin materiaalia yksilöille ja kasvattajille tasapainoisen media-arjen tueksi sekä laadittiin Digihyvin-voinnin tiekartta Suomelle yhdessä laajan sidosryhmän kanssa. Tiekartassa ehdotetaan 17 ratkaisua digitaalisen hyvinvoinnin haasteisiin politiikassa, yhteisöissä, palveluissa ja teknologia-alalla. Tuotetut materiaalit juurruttavat tutkimusnäyttöön perustuvia suosituksia kansalaisten ja alan asiantuntijoiden keskuudessa. Tutkimuksen ja tiekarttatyöskentelyn perusteella hanketoimijat suosittelevat, että Suomeen perustetaan elin, jonka tehtävä olisi edistää tutkimusta ja ymmärrystä kansalaisten digitaalisesta hyvinvoinnista sekä teknologia-alan sosiaa-lista vastuullisuutta.Tämä julkaisu on toteutettu osana valtioneuvoston selvitys- ja tutkimussuunnitelman toimeenpanoa. (tietokayttoon.fi) Julkaisun sisällöstä vastaavat tiedon tuottajat, eikä tekstisisältö välttämättä edusta valtioneuvoston näkemystä

Postpartum Burnout Among Women of Childbearing Age: A Neglected Global Public Health Problem

Euphoric moods characterize the postpartum period, but for many mothers, regardless of economic, social, ethnic, or cultural backgrounds, this period is overshadowed by the negative impact of physical and mental fatigue. This study conducted a comprehensive search across multiple databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, to gather articles reporting associations between various factors and postpartum fatigue. The findings revealed that cultural and social expectations of motherhood, sleep disturbance, partnering, socio-economic disadvantage, pre-existing mental illness, and labor experiences significantly contributed to postpartum fatigue. At the same time, routine exercise and social support systems served as protective factors. By addressing these factors promptly, healthcare providers can enhance the well-being and quality of life of postpartum women and their infants

Parenting in the 21st Century

In this Special Issue, we present a collection of articles that cover the unique opportunities and challenges of parenting in the 21st century. We have identified three themes across the articles: managing stress; support for effective parenting; and emphasis on fostering competence for an uncertain future. First, although the studies did not use data to test for differences between cohorts of parents, the results suggested that stress is a normal state for parents today, and especially for certain groups of parents. Second, despite high stress among parents, the articles point at some important support systems for parents in the 21st century. For example, although technology can be a stressor, it can also be a useful tool to enhance the parent-child relationship for parents of adolescents or young adults. Finally, in the third theme, we saw an emphasis on promoting a mix of competencies emphasizing both autonomy and relatedness in children and speculate that parents see these competences as tools to help the child to deal with an uncertain future.Results from this Special Issue illustrate the impact of societal changes on parenting. The findings can be used to develop programs and policies to provide support to diverse parents in handling today’s stressors, ranging from technology to racism to excessive pressures for parental “success”. They also point to important research gaps in understanding the task of parenting in the 21st century