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    Systems approaches to animal disease surveillance and resource allocation: methodological frameworks for behavioral analysis

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    While demands for animal disease surveillance systems are growing, there has been little applied research that has examined the interactions between resource allocation, cost-effectiveness, and behavioral considerations of actors throughout the livestock supply chain in a surveillance system context. These interactions are important as feedbacks between surveillance decisions and disease evolution may be modulated by their contextual drivers, influencing the cost-effectiveness of a given surveillance system. This paper identifies a number of key behavioral aspects involved in animal health surveillance systems and reviews some novel methodologies for their analysis. A generic framework for analysis is discussed, with exemplar results provided to demonstrate the utility of such an approach in guiding better disease control and surveillance decisions

    Surveillance of the Disease Incidence and Severity of Papaya Ringspot Virus at Four Selected Districts of Bangladesh

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    An experiment was conducted to survey the prevalence of disease incidence and severity of Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) at eight locations of four districts in Bangladesh. Papaya is one of the most popular fruits in the world. It suffers from several diseases including fungi, bacteria, nematodes and viruses. Among them, viral diseases are found to cause considerable yield loss, with the most important one being PRSV. The survey was conducted at three plain districts and one hill tract area from July 2016 to December 2016. During the survey period, six different symptoms were found in the selected fields and were identified as PRSV based on symptomology. These symptoms were mild mosaic (MM), mosaic (MO), severe mosaic (SM), fern leaf (FL), leaf distortion (LD) and vein clearing (VC). The highest disease incidence (36.24%) was found in BSMRAU farm in Gazipur whereas the lowest (12.04%) was found in Panchari, Khagrachari hill tract. The maximum severity (11.53%) was found in BSMRAU campus, Gazipur on the country and the lowest severity (2.50%) was found in Panchari, Khagrachari hill tract. The yield and yield contributing parameters of papaya found to be differ significantly among the surveyed area. The lowest fruit weight (324.3 gm) due to PRSV infection was recorded in BSMRAU, Gazipur while the highest fruit weight (643.6 gm) was conducted in SAU Campus, Dhaka

    Recommendations for influenza immunization and control in the civilian population

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    "Epidemics of influenza-like disease became widespread in several areas of the Eastern United States during January. The first confirmed outbreak of the season began early in the month in Robeson County in southern North Carolina. Adjacent counties in North Carolina and contiguous areas of South Carolina became progressively involved. By February 15, outbreaks of inf1uenza-like il1ness had been reported from the District of Columbia and 15 States, including North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, Kansas, Illinois, Georgia, Maine, Vermont, South Carolina, New York, Massachusetts, Ohio, Kentucky, and West Virginia. Influenza A2 virus had been confirmed by isolation or by serologic titer rise as the causative agent in outbreaks in the District of Columbia, North Carolina, Maryland, Kansas, New York, and at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station in Illinois. During the month of January, the pattern of spread of disease confined itself to a northerly and southerly direction along the Atlantic Seaboard. The early confirmed outbreaks in Kansas City and Chicago areas occurred in rather specialized population groups, and it was not until February that: community-wide outbreaks were seen in these areas. Figure 1 shows the distribution of outbreaks through February 15. In early February, outbreaks in West Virginia, Kentucky, and Ohio suggested the beginning of a westerly spread, which was confirmed when, by late February J large segments of Middle 'Western and South Central States became involved. By the first week of March, outbreaks of influenza-like disease had been reported from the District of Columbia and 35 States, all east of the Rocky Mountains with the exception of focal outbreaks in Montana and Arizona. Influenza A2 virus was implicated as the etiologic agent in one or more outbreaks in twelve more States including Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Iowa, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, Ohio, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin. By early March, outbreaks were subsiding in most affected areas of the East and Middle West. The pattern of epidemic spread, however, continued a westerly course, although the extensive, often state-wide, involvement which characterized earlier outbreaks on the Eastern Seaboard was not frequently observed as the epidemic moved westward. Among the Mountain States, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah reported outbreaks for the first time, and the West Coast States of Alaska and California began to experience outbreaks. In mid-March, the State of Washington reported two focal outbreaks. A small focal outbreak also occurred in Wyoming about this time. By late April, one or more outbreaks of influenza-like disease had been reported from the District of Columbia and45 States. Only the States of Florida, Hawaii, Nebraska, Nevada, and New Mexico failed to report increased incidences of this syndrome. InfluenzaA2 virus was implicated as the causative agent of one or more outbreaks in the District of Columbia and a total of 34 States, with the States of Arizona, Arkansas I California, Colorado, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, I Utah, Vermont, Washington, and West Virginia, now added to the list. With the exception of the State of Alaska, where widespread community epidemics occurred during the months of March and April, the West Coast States were notable for the lack of demonstrated community involvement. The State of California represents an interesting example of this phenomenon in which the presence of influenza A2 virus was demonstrated over large areas of the State through serologic confirmation in sporadic cases, but in which outbreaks could be demonstrated largely only in institutional environments. In general, the force of the epidemic, in its capacity for large scale community involvement tended to dissipate as the epidemic moved west. Figure 2 shows the distribution of outbreaks for the epidemic as a whole. Conspicuous by its absence during this epidemic was the widespread excess secondary school absenteeism so markedly associated with the 1957 influenza A2 epidemic. This observation was, in part, confirmed by surveys of age specific attack rate in selected areas of epidemic prevalence, where a marked flattening of the attack rate curves was demonstrated in the age groups 10-19. (See Influenza Surveillance Report No. 76, page 14). For the epidemic as a whole, the only influenza agents implicated by isolation have been strains of influenza A. No isolations of influenza B strains were reported to the Influenza Surveillance Unit during the entire season. The contemporary A strains showed relation, through hemagglutination inhibition to the A2/Jap 305/57 prototype, and are clearly members of the A2 subtype. That a certain amount of .antigenic drift away from the 1957 prototype has occurred is also clearly demonstrated in reciprocal cross hemagglutination inhibition tests using both ferret and rooster immune antisera. Studies at the Respirovirus Unit, Communicable Disease Center would also indicate that this is a continuance of a drift noticed with the appearance of the A2lJap 170/62 prototype strain, in that certain contemporary U. S. isolates would appear to vary antigenical1y as much from A2lJap 170/62 as A2/ Jap 170/62 varies from A2lJap305/57. On May 27 the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Influenza met to consider recommendations for the coming year (See Part VII of this Influenza Surveillance Report). Of particular note was the agreement on the prediction that widespread outbreaks of influenza are not likely to occur during the coming winter season. Of further note was the decision to change the current civilian polyvalent vaccine from a four-strain to a six-strain material-with the addition of one more contemporary strain each of A2 and B. The total CCA unitage of the new vaccine will be 600 instead of the current 500, the total CCA unitage of the combined A2components remaining, as before, at 200, and the total unitage of the B components being increased by 100. Also of interest was the increased disparity between the composition of the military vaccine (continuing the old four-strain 1000 CCA unit/ml composition for the coming season) and the new civilian vaccine. The decision to incorporate a new A2 strain into the civilian vaccine, though the new AZ/Jap 170/62 prototype reflects only variation within the subtype and not a major antigenic shift, would seem to reflect an underlying assumption that variations within a subtype may affect vaccine efficacy. During the season there were few adequate studies of vaccine efficacy. However, studies, to be described later in this report, would tend to question the efficacy of the current vaccine in the specific populations considered. One of the studies, in particular, poses the question of whether influenza vaccine induced H. I. antibody is related to vaccine protection. Pneumonia-influenza deaths in the 108 cities first exceeded the epidemic threshold in early January and reached a peak during the week ending March 16. Deaths fell to below threshold levels during the week ending April 13 and have remained so to the present." - p. [1]-5I. Summary -- II. Epidemic reports -- III. International summary -- IV. Special reports -- V. Laboratory report -- VI. Pneumonia influenza mortality -- VII. Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Influenza: Recommendations for influenza immunization and control in the civilian populationJune 14, 1963.Produced by the Communicable Disease Center Epidemiology Branch Influenza Surveillance Unit.Section II called also: Influenza, United States-winter 1961-1962"Summarized in this report is information received from State Health Departments, university investigators, virology laboratories and other pertinent sources, domestic and foreign. Much of the information is preliminary. It is intended primarily for the use of those with responsibility for disease control activities. Anyone desiring to quote this report should contact the original investigator for confirmation and interpretation." - prefac

    Small animal disease surveillance: respiratory disease 2017

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    This report focuses on surveillance for respiratory disease in companion animals. It begins with an analysis of data from 392 veterinary practices contributing to the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET) between January and December 2017. The following section describes canine respiratory coronavirus infections in dogs, presenting results from laboratory-confirmed cases across the country between January 2010 and December 2017. This is followed by an update on the temporal trends of three important syndromes in companion animals, namely gastroenteritis, pruritus and respiratory disease, from 2014 to 2017. A fourth section presents a brief update on Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus in companion animals. The final section summarises some recent developments pertinent to companion animal health, namely eyeworm (Thelazzia callipaeda) infestations in dogs imported to the UK and canine influenza virus in the USA and Canada

    Concepts of excess mortality

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    "During the past influenza season, pertinent summaries and epidemiological data were published regularly in the C. D. C. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports. It was felt that the currentness and expanded distribution of information achieved in this manner outweighed the possibly more detailed coverage but retrospective character of standard Influenza Surveillance Summaries. The present report includes: 1) a review of the 1964-65 influenza experience in the United States; 2) an international summary; 3) laboratory discussion; and 4) a collection of pertinent special reports. Interpretations and analysis in the present report are based on data received from official health and research agencies in States and Cities of the U.S. and material, largely that published by the World Health Organization and its sister organizations, dealing with international influenza surveillance. Where direct quotations or Daraphrased reports have been printed, full credits are given; otherwise, data have been assimilated into discussion of broader topics without specific references." - p. [1]I. United States summary -- Summer-Fall 1964 -- Winter 1965 -- -- II. United States divisional notes -- -- III. International summary -- -- IV. Laboratory report ---- V. Special reports -- Epidemic investigations -- Equine influenza -- Concepts of excess mortality / Robert E. SerflingJune 7, 1965.Produced by the Communicable Disease Center, Epidemiology Branch, Statistics Section, Surveillance Section, Influenza Surveillance Unit; and Respirovirus Unit, Laboratory Branch."New Name - The reader's attention is directed to an intended expansion of content in future Influenza Surveillance Summaries suggested by the more inclusive title first being published in this issue. As the epidemiology of multitudinous respiratory viruses becomes better documented, there is growing importance in fitting them into meaningful patterns for investigation and control. While these summaries cannot presume a major role in this regard, there will undoubtedly be times and reasons for comparative discussions and specific reports of general interest to our readers."Last page consists of a listing by state of state epidemiologists."Summarized in this report is information received from State Health Departments, university investigators, virology laboratories and other pertinent sources, domestic and foreign. Much of the information is preliminary. It is intended primarily for the use of those with responsibility for disease control activities. Anyone desiring to quote this report should contact the original investigator for confirmation and interpretation." - prefac

    Analysis of Swine Movements in a Province in Northern Vietnam and Application in the Design of Surveillance Strategies for Infectious Diseases

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    While swine production is rapidly growing in South-East Asia, the structure of the swine industry and the dynamic of pig movements have not been well-studied. However, this knowledge is a prerequisite for understanding the dynamic of disease transmission in swine populations and designing cost-effective surveillance strategies for infectious diseases. In this study, we assessed the farming and trading practices in the Vietnamese swine familial farming sector, which accounts for most pigs in Vietnam, and for which disease surveillance is a major challenge. Farmers from two communes of a Red River Delta Province (northern Vietnam) were interviewed, along with traders involved in pig transactions. Major differences in the trade structure were observed between the two communes. One commune had mainly transversal trades, that is between farms of equivalent sizes, whereas the other had pyramidal trades, that is from larger to smaller farms. Companies and large familial farrow-to-finish farms were likely to act as major sources of disease spread through pig sales, demonstrating their importance for disease control. Familial fattening farms with high pig purchases were at greater risk of disease introduction and should be targeted for disease detection as part of a risk-based surveillance. In contrast, many other familial farms were isolated or weakly connected to the swine trade network limiting their relevance for surveillance activities. However, some of these farms used boar hiring for breeding, increasing the risk of disease spread. Most familial farms were slaughtering pigs at the farm or in small local slaughterhouses, making the surveillance at the slaughterhouse inefficient. In terms of spatial distribution of the trades, the results suggested that northern provinces were highly connected and showed some connection with central and southern provinces. These results are useful to develop risk-based surveillance protocols for disease detection in the swine familial sector and to make recommendations for disease control. (Résumé d'auteur

    Bringing together emerging and endemic zoonoses surveillance: shared challenges and a common solution

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    Early detection of disease outbreaks in human and animal populations is crucial to the effective surveillance of emerging infectious diseases. However, there are marked geographical disparities in capacity for early detection of outbreaks, which limit the effectiveness of global surveillance strategies. Linking surveillance approaches for emerging and neglected endemic zoonoses, with a renewed focus on existing disease problems in developing countries, has the potential to overcome several limitations and to achieve additional health benefits. Poor reporting is a major constraint to the surveillance of both emerging and endemic zoonoses, and several important barriers to reporting can be identified: (i) a lack of tangible benefits when reports are made; (ii) a lack of capacity to enforce regulations; (iii) poor communication among communities, institutions and sectors; and (iv) complexities of the international regulatory environment. Redirecting surveillance efforts to focus on endemic zoonoses in developing countries offers a pragmatic approach that overcomes some of these barriers and provides support in regions where surveillance capacity is currently weakest. In addition, this approach addresses immediate health and development problems, and provides an equitable and sustainable mechanism for building the culture of surveillance and the core capacities that are needed for all zoonotic pathogens, including emerging disease threats
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