Using Constructed Wetlands to Remove Pathogenic Parasites and Fecal Coliforms from Wastewater in Dar es Salaam and Iringa, Tanzania

Wastewater treatment is a widely used health protection measure that can be applied to control the transmission of wastewater-related infectious diseases to communities exposed to wastewater. This study determined the efficiency of three full-scale constructed wetlands (CWs) in removing pathogenic parasites and fecal coliform (FC) bacteria from wastewater. Wastewater samples were collected from three CW systems located in the Dar es Salaam and Iringa regions of Tanzania. The modified Bailenger and modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain techniques were used to detect and quantify parasites. The membrane filtration method was used to detect and quantify FC bacteria. Data were analysed using IBM SPSS version 20. Helminth (Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm, and Taenia spp.) eggs were completely removed by two CW systems. In all the systems, the removal of protozoa ranged from 99.8% to 100%. The mean concentrations of FCs in effluents ranged from 5 to 6 log units/100 mL. Effluents of all CW systems met the recommended parasitological quality requirements of the World Health Organization for the safe reuse of wastewater. FC effluents concentrations did not meet the local discharge standards of the Tanzania Bureau of Standards. Therefore, improvement to the CWs’ design, operation, and maintenance are required for the efficient removal of bacteria. Keywords: helminth, protozoa, fecal coliform, wastewater treatment, constructed wetlan

Non-falciparum Malaria in Africa and Learning From Plasmodium vivax in Asia

To the Editor—We read with interest Groger and colleagues’ prospective study of Plasmodium ovale relapses in Gabon [1]. Their work is timely given non-falciparum malaria’s increasing prom-inence in Africa and the potential role of hypnozoite-induced relapses in this trend. Despite declines in Plasmodium falciparum transmission, molecular sur-veys have shown a 6-fold increase in the odds of P.  ovale infection in Tanzania from 2010 to 2016 [2], and a similar trend in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where the species’ prevalence increased from 0.4 to 8.3% in national surveys con-ducted in 2007 and 2013 [3, 4]. Successful interventions against P.  falciparum in Zanzibar [5] and Uganda [6] have not had the same effect on non-falciparum species. Clearly, P.  ovale is becoming an increasingly important malaria in Africa

Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance phenotype as assessed by patient antimalarial drug levels and Its association With pfmdr1 polymorphisms

Background. Multidrug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum is a major threat to global malaria control. Parasites develop resistance by gradually acquiring genetic polymorphisms that decrease drug susceptibility. The aim of this study was to investigate the extent to which parasites with different genetic characteristics are able to withstand individual drug blood concentrations. Methods. We analyzed 2 clinical trials that assessed the efficacy and effectiveness of artemether-lumefantrine. As a proof of concept, we used measured day 7 lumefantrine concentrations to estimate the concentrations at which reinfections multiplied. P. falciparum multidrug resistance gene 1 (pfmdr1) genotypes of these parasites were then correlated to drug susceptibility. Results. Reinfecting parasites with the pfmdr1 N86/184F/D1246 haplotype were able to withstand lumefantrine blood concentrations 15-fold higher than those with the 86Y/Y184/1246Y haplotype. Conclusions. By estimating drug concentrations, we were able to quantify the contribution of pfmdr1 single-nucleotide polymorphisms to reduced lumefantrine susceptibility. The method can be applied to all long-half-life antimalarial drugs, enables early detection of P. falciparum with reduced drug susceptibility in vivo, and represents a novel way for unveiling molecular markers of antimalarial drug resistance.Swedish Development Cooperation Agency-Department for Research Cooperation (SIDA-SAREC) [SWE 2004-3850, Bil-Tz 16/9875007059, SWE-2009-165]; World Health Organization MIM-TDR [[A60100] MAL IRM 06 03]; Goljes Foundation; Swedish medical research council [K2010-56X-21457-01-3]; Wellcome Trust of Great Britai

Socio-demographic determinants of dengue infection during an outbreak in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania

AbstractBackground: In recent years, the eastern coast of Africa has witnessed a number of dengue outbreaks. This study was carried out to determine socio-demographic determinants of dengue infection during the 2014 outbreak in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Methods: Unmatched case-control analysis of secondary data from a cross-sectional dengue investigation in three districts of Dar es Salaam in June 2014 was conducted. Febrile patients seeking care at health facilities were recruited. Cases were serologically-confirmed dengue-positive while controls were serologically-confirmed dengue-negative patients. A questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographic information. The association between sociodemographic variables and dengue infection was examined using univariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression analysis. Results: A total of 81 cases and 281 controls were included in the analysis. Majority of the cases and controls were males (64.2% versus 54.1%; P=0.137) and were >15 years of age (88.9% versus 72.9%; P =0.003). Living in Kinondoni (aOR = 4.28; 95% CI: 1.74 - 10.53); being employed (aOR = 2.06; 95% CI: 1.06-4.04); having piped water at home (aOR = 2.63; 95% CI: 1.40 - 4.95) and a recent visit of health facility (aOR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.11 - 3.38) were significantly associated with dengue infection.Conclusions: Dengue infection in Dar es Salaam varied between the three districts and was associated with being employed, having piped water at home and a recent visit to the health facility. These findings provide primary understanding of the influence of socio-demographic factors on dengue and may be used to develop appropriate preventive interventions

Performance of Rapid Diagnostic Test, Blood-film Microscopy and PCR for the Diagnosis of Malaria Infection among Febrile Children from Korogwe District, Tanzania.

Rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) and light microscopy are still recommended for diagnosis to guide the clinical management of malaria despite difficult challenges in rural settings. The performance of these tests may be affected by several factors, including malaria prevalence and intensity of transmission. The study evaluated the diagnostic performance of malaria RDT, light microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in detecting malaria infections among febrile children at outpatient clinic in Korogwe District, northeastern Tanzania. The study enrolled children aged 2-59 months with fever and/or history of fever in the previous 48 h attending outpatient clinics. Blood samples were collected for identification of Plasmodium falciparum infection using histidine-rich-protein-2 (HRP-2)-based malaria RDT, light microscopy and conventional PCR. A total of 867 febrile patients were enrolled into the study. Malaria-positive samples were 85/867 (9.8 %, 95 % CI, 7.9-12.0 %) by RDT, 72/867 (8.3 %, 95 % CI, 6.5-10.1 %) by microscopy and 79/677 (11.7 %, 95 % CI, 9.3-14.3 %) by PCR. The performance of malaria RDT compared with microscopy results had sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) of 88.9 % (95 % CI, 79.3-95.1 %) and 75.3 % (95 % CI, 64.8-84.0 %), respectively. Confirmation of P. falciparum infection with PCR analysis provided lower sensitivity and PPV of 88.6 % (95 % CI, 79.5-94.7 %) and 84.3 % (95 % CI, 74.7-91.4 %) for RDT compared to microscopy. Diagnosis of malaria infection is still a challenge due to variation in results among diagnostic methods. HRP-2 malaria RDT and microscopy were less sensitive than PCR. Diagnostic tools with high sensitivity are required in areas of low malaria transmission

Adding a single low-dose of primaquine (0.25 mg/kg) to artemether-lumefantrine did not compromise treatment outcome of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Tanzania: a randomized, single-blinded clinical trial

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) recently recommended the addition of a single low-dose of the gametocytocidal drug primaquine (PQ) to artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) in low transmission set‑ tings as a component of pre-elimination or elimination programmes. However, it is unclear whether that influences the ACT cure rate. The study assessed treatment outcome of artemether-lumefantrine (AL) plus a single PQ dose (0.25 mg/kg) versus standard AL regimen for treatment of acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Tanzania. Methods: A randomized, single-blinded, clinical trial was conducted in Yombo, Bagamoyo district, Tanzania. Acute uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria patients aged ≥1 year, with the exception of pregnant and lactating women, were enrolled and treated with AL plus a single PQ dose (0.25 mg/kg) or AL alone under supervision. PQ was admin‑ istered together with the first AL dose. Clinical and laboratory assessments were performed at 0, 8, 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72 h and on days 7, 14, 21, and 28. The primary end-point was a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-adjusted adequate clinical and parasitological response (ACPR) on day 28. Secondary outcomes included: fever and asexual parasitaemia clearance, proportion of patients with PCR-determined parasitaemia on day 3, and proportion of patients with Pfmdr1 N86Y and Pfcrt K76T on days 0, 3 and day of recurrent infection. Results: Overall 220 patients were enrolled, 110 were allocated AL + PQ and AL, respectively. Parasite clearance by microscopy was fast, but PCR detectable parasitaemia on day 3 was 31/109 (28.4 %) and 29/108 (26.9 %) in patients treated with AL + PQ and AL, respectively (p = 0.79). Day 28 PCR-adjusted ACPR and re-infection rate was 105/105 (100 %) and 101/102 (99 %) (p = 0.31), and 5/107 (4.7 %) and 5/8 (4.8 %) (p = 0.95), in AL + PQ and AL arm, respectively. There was neither any statistically significant difference in the proportion of Pfmdr1 N86Y or Pfcrt K76T between treatment arms on days 0, 3 and day of recurrent infection, nor within treatment arms between days 0 and 3 or day 0 and day of recurrent infection. Conclusion: The new WHO recommendation of adding a single low-dose of PQ to AL did not compromise treatment outcome of uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria in Tanzania

Dried urine spot method for detection of Schistosoma mansoni circulating cathodic antigen in resource-limited settings: a proof of concept study

BackgroundAmong the challenges in schistosomiasis surveillance and mapping surveys is the lack of a sensitive diagnostic method especially in low transmission setting. Currently, the WHO recommends the use point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen (Schisto POC-CCA) tests for surveillance and mapping of intestinal schistosomiasis. However, Schisto POC-CCA test has its drawbacks, one of which is the timely availability of test kits. One approach to overcoming this challenge is to develop a low-cost sampling method that allows for the collection and transport of urine specimens even in resource-limited settings.ObjectiveTo develop a simple and efficient method for the collection and detection of Schistosoma mansoni (S. mansoni) CCA using urine spotted onto filter paper.MethodologyTo develop a dried urine spot (DUS) method, various dried matrix extraction parameters were tested and optimized using predesigned steps. The parameters include the size of filter paper (determined by the number of punches), volume of solvents, and type of solvent. Moreover, we optimized the incubation conditions (time and temperature). Urine and stool specimens to conduct the experiments were collected from volunteer fishermen in Mwanza and this project staff. Data were entered into the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 20 for analysis.ResultsThe optimal results were obtained when the procedure was run under the following conditions: Five punches of filter paper containing DUS were dissolved in 150 µl of distilled water and incubated at room temperature for 24 hours in an Eppendorf tube. More than 93% of the assays performed under these conditions produced results that were either comparable to or significantly better than the standard method.ConclusionThis study demonstrates the feasibility of collecting urine specimen (DUS) using filter paper and detecting Schistosoma CCA from DUS specimen using the Schisto POC-CCA cassette test

Safety of a single low-dose of primaquine in addition to standard artemether-lumefantrine regimen for treatment of acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Tanzania

Background: This study assessed the safety of the new World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation of adding a single low-dose of primaquine (PQ) to standard artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), regardless of individual glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) status, for treatment of acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Tanzania. Methods: Men and non-pregnant, non-lactating women aged ≥1 year with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria were enrolled and randomized to either standard artemether-lumefantrine (AL) regimen alone or with a 0.25 mg/kg single-dose of PQ. PQ was administered concomitantly with the first AL dose. All drug doses were supervised. Safety was evaluated between days 0 and 28. G6PD status was assessed using rapid test (CareStart™) and molecular genotyping. The primary endpoint was mean percentage relative reduction in haemoglobin (Hb) concentration (g/dL) between days 0 and 7 by genotypic G6PD status and treatment arm. Results: Overall, 220 patients, 110 per treatment arm, were enrolled, of whom 33/217 (15.2 %) were phenotypically G6PD deficient, whereas 15/110 (13.6 %) were genotypically hemizygous males, 5/110 (4.5 %) homozygous females and 22/110 (20 %) heterozygous females. Compared to genotypically G6PD wild-type/normal [6.8, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 4.67–8.96], only heterozygous patients in AL arm had significant reduction in day-7 mean relative Hb concentration (14.3, 95 % CI 7.02-21.55, p=0.045), however, none fulfilled the pre-defined haemolytic threshold value of ≥25 % Hb reduction. After adjustment for baseline parasitaemia, Hb, age and sex the mean relative Hb reduction was not statistically significant in both heterozygous and hemizygous/homozygous patients in both arms. A majority of the adverse events (AEs) were mild and unrelated to the study drugs. However, six (4.4 %) episodes, three per treatment arm, of acute haemolytic anaemia occurred between days 0 and 7. Three occurred in phenotypically G6PD deficient patients, two in AL and one in AL + PQ arm, but none in genotypically hemizygous/homozygous patients. All patients with acute haemolytic anaemia recovered without medical intervention. Conclusion: The findings support that the WHO recommendation of adding a single low-dose of PQ to standard AL regimen is safe for the treatment of acute uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria regardless of G6PD status in Tanzania

Bloodstream Bacterial Infection among Outpatient Children with Acute Febrile Illness in North-eastern Tanzania.

Fever is a common clinical symptom in children attending hospital outpatient clinics in rural Tanzania, yet there is still a paucity of data on the burden of bloodstream bacterial infection among these patients. The present study was conducted at Korogwe District Hospital in north-eastern Tanzania. Patients aged between 2 and 59 months with a history of fever or measured axillary temperature ≥37.5°C attending the outpatient clinic were screened for enrolment into the study. Blood culturing was performed using the BACTEC 9050® system. A biochemical analytical profile index and serological tests were used for identification and confirmation of bacterial isolates. In-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. The identification of Plasmodium falciparum malaria was performed by microscopy with Giemsa stained blood films. A total of 808 blood cultures were collected between January and October 2013. Bacterial growth was observed in 62/808 (7.7%) of the cultured samples. Pathogenic bacteria were identified in 26/808 (3.2%) cultures and the remaining 36/62 (58.1%) were classified as contaminants. Salmonella typhi was the predominant bacterial isolate detected in 17/26 (65.4%) patients of which 16/17 (94.1%) were from patients above 12 months of age. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the second leading bacterial isolate detected in 4/26 (15.4%) patients. A high proportion of S. typhi 11/17 (64.7%) was isolated during the rainy season. S. typhi isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin (n = 17/17, 100%) and ceftriaxone (n = 13/17, 76.5%) but resistant to chloramphenicol (n = 15/17, 88.2%). P. falciparum malaria was identified in 69/808 (8.5%) patients, none of whom had bacterial infection. Bloodstream bacterial infection was not found to be a common cause of fever in outpatient children; and S. typhi was the predominant isolate. This study highlights the need for rational use of antimicrobial prescription in febrile paediatric outpatients presenting at healthcare facilities in rural Tanzania

Point-of-care mobile digital microscopy and deep learning for the detection of soil-transmitted helminths and Schistosoma haematobium

Background: Microscopy remains the gold standard in the diagnosis of neglected tropical diseases. As resource limited, rural areas often lack laboratory equipment and trained personnel, new diagnostic techniques are needed. Low-cost, point-of-care imaging devices show potential in the diagnosis of these diseases. Novel, digital image analysis algorithms can be utilized to automate sample analysis. Objective: Evaluation of the imaging performance of a miniature digital microscopy scanner for the diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminths and Schistosoma haematobium, and training of a deep learning-based image analysis algorithm for automated detection of soil-transmitted helminths in the captured images. Methods: A total of 13 iodine-stained stool samples containing Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and hookworm eggs and 4 urine samples containing Schistosoma haematobium were digitized using a reference whole slide-scanner and the mobile microscopy scanner. Parasites in the images were identified by visual examination and by analysis with a deep learning-based image analysis algorithm in the stool samples. Results were compared between the digital and visual analysis of the images showing helminth eggs. Results: Parasite identification by visual analysis of digital slides captured with the mobile microscope was feasible for all analyzed parasites. Although the spatial resolution of the reference slide-scanner is higher, the resolution of the mobile microscope is sufficient for reliable identification and classification of all parasites studied. Digital image analysis of stool sample images captured with the mobile microscope showed high sensitivity for detection of all helminths studied (range of sensitivity = 83.3-100%) in the test set (n = 217) of manually labeled helminth eggs. Conclusions: In this proof-of-concept study, the imaging performance of a mobile, digital microscope was sufficient for visual detection of soil-transmitted helminths and Schistosoma haematobium. Furthermore, we show that deep learning-based image analysis can be utilized for the automated detection and classification of helminths in the captured images.Peer reviewe