Vitamin E deficiency and risk of equine motor neuron disease

© 2007 Mohammed et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licens

Development and evaluation of a diagnostic cytokine-release assay for Mycobacterium suricattae infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta)

CITATION: Clarke, C., et al. 2017. Development and evaluation of a diagnostic cytokine-release assay for mycobacterium suricattae infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta). BMC Veterinary Research, 13:2, doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0927-x.The original publication is available at http://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.comBackground: Sensitive diagnostic tools are necessary for the detection of Mycobacterium suricattae infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta) in order to more clearly understand the epidemiology of tuberculosis and the ecological consequences of the disease in this species. We therefore aimed to develop a cytokine release assay to measure antigen-specific cell-mediated immune responses of meerkats. Results: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were evaluated for the detection of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and IFN-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10) in meerkat plasma. An IP-10 ELISA was selected to measure the release of this cytokine in whole blood in response to Bovigam® PC-HP Stimulating Antigen, a commercial peptide pool of M. bovis antigens. Using this protocol, captive meerkats with no known M. suricattae exposure (n = 10) were tested and results were used to define a diagnostic cut off value (mean plus 2 standard deviations). This IP-10 release assay (IPRA) was then evaluated in free-living meerkats with known M. suricattae exposure, categorized as having either a low, moderate or high risk of infection with this pathogen. In each category, respectively, 24.7%, 27.3% and 82.4% of animals tested IPRA-positive. The odds of an animal testing positive was 14.0 times greater for animals with a high risk of M. suricattae infection compared to animals with a low risk. Conclusion: These results support the use of this assay as a measure of M. suricattae exposure in meerkat populations. Ongoing longitudinal studies aim to evaluate the value of the IPRA as a diagnostic test of M. suricattae infection in individual animals.http://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-016-0927-xPublisher's versio

Evidence for genetic variance in resistance to tuberculosis in Great Britain and Irish Holstein-Friesian populations

peer-reviewedBackground: Here, we jointly summarise scientific evidence for genetic variation in resistance to infection with Mycobacterium bovis, the primary agent of bovine tuberculosis (TB), provided by two recent and separate studies of Holstein-Friesian dairy cow populations in Great Britain (GB) and Ireland. Methods: The studies quantified genetic variation within archived data from field and abattoir surveillance control programmes within each country. These data included results from the single intradermal comparative tuberculin test (SICTT), abattoir inspection for TB lesions and laboratory confirmation of disease status. Threshold animal models were used to estimate variance components for responsiveness to the SICTT and abattoir confirmed M. bovis infection. The link functions between the observed 0/1 scale and the liability scale were the complementary log-log in the GB, and logit link function in the Irish population. Results and discussion: The estimated heritability of susceptibility to TB, as judged by responsiveness to the SICTT, was 0.16 (0.012) and 0.14 (0.025) in the GB and Irish populations, respectively. For abattoir or laboratory confirmation of infection, estimates were 0.18 (0.044) and 0.18 (0.041) from the GB and the Irish populations, respectively. Conclusions: Estimates were all significantly different from zero and indicate that exploitable variation exists among GB and Irish Holstein Friesian dairy cows for resistance to TB. Epidemiological analysis suggests that factors such as variation in exposure or imperfect sensitivity and specificity would have resulted in underestimation of the true values

A preliminary study of genetic factors that influence susceptibility to bovine tuberculosis in the British cattle herd

Associations between specific host genes and susceptibility to Mycobacterial infections such as tuberculosis have been reported in several species. Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) impacts greatly the UK cattle industry, yet genetic predispositions have yet to be identified. We therefore used a candidate gene approach to study 384 cattle of which 160 had reacted positively to an antigenic skin test (‘reactors’). Our approach was unusual in that it used microsatellite markers, embraced high breed diversity and focused particularly on detecting genes showing heterozygote advantage, a mode of action often overlooked in SNP-based studies. A panel of neutral markers was used to control for population substructure and using a general linear model-based approach we were also able to control for age. We found that substructure was surprisingly weak and identified two genomic regions that were strongly associated with reactor status, identified by markers INRA111 and BMS2753. In general the strength of association detected tended to vary depending on whether age was included in the model. At INRA111 a single genotype appears strongly protective with an overall odds ratio of 2.2, the effect being consistent across nine diverse breeds. Our results suggest that breeding strategies could be devised that would appreciably increase genetic resistance of cattle to bTB (strictly, reduce the frequency of incidence of reactors) with implications for the current debate concerning badger-culling

Evaluation of the methodological quality of studies of the performance of diagnostic tests for bovine tuberculosis using QUADAS

There has been little assessment of the methodological quality of studies measuring the performance (sensitivity and/or specificity) of diagnostic tests for animal diseases. In a systematic review, 190 studies of tests for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in cattle (published 1934-2009) were assessed by at least one of 18 reviewers using the QUADAS (Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) checklist adapted for animal disease tests. VETQUADAS (VQ) included items measuring clarity in reporting (n = 3), internal validity (n = 9) and external validity (n = 2). A similar pattern for compliance was observed in studies of different diagnostic test types. Compliance significantly improved with year of publication for all items measuring clarity in reporting and external validity but only improved in four of the nine items measuring internal validity (p < 0.05). 107 references, of which 83 had performance data eligible for inclusion in a meta-analysis were reviewed by two reviewers. In these references, agreement between reviewers' responses was 71% for compliance, 32% for unsure and 29% for non-compliance. Mean compliance with reporting items was 2, 5.2 for internal validity and 1.5 for external validity. The index test result was described in sufficient detail in 80.1% of studies and was interpreted without knowledge of the reference standard test result in only 33.1%. Loss to follow-up was adequately explained in only 31.1% of studies. The prevalence of deficiencies observed may be due to inadequate reporting but may also reflect lack of attention to methodological issues that could bias the results of diagnostic test performance estimates. QUADAS was a useful tool for assessing and comparing the quality of studies measuring the performance of diagnostic tests but might be improved further by including explicit assessment of population sampling strategy.The SE3238 project “Meta-analysis of diagnostic tests and modelling to identify appropriate testing strategies to reduce M. bovis infection in GB herds” was funded by the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).http://www.elsevier.com/locate/prevetmedam2018Veterinary Tropical Disease

Meta-analyses of the sensitivity and specificity of ante-mortem and post-mortem diagnostic tests for bovine tuberculosis in the UK and Ireland

Publication history: Accepted - 26 February 2017; Published online - 6th March 2017.Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) in cattle is a global health problem and eradication of the disease requires accu-rate estimates of diagnostic test performance to optimize their efficiency. The objective of this study was,through statistical meta-analyses, to obtain estimates of sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp), for 14 differ-ent ante-mortem and post-mortem diagnostic tests for bTB in cattle. Using data from a systematic reviewof the scientific literature (published 1934–2009) diagnostic Se and Sp were estimated using Bayesianlogistic regression models adjusting for confounding factors. Random effect terms were used to accountfor unexplained heterogeneity. Parameters in the models were implemented using Markov Chain MonteCarlo (MCMC), and posterior distributions for the diagnostic parameters with adjustment for covariates(confounding factors) were obtained using the inverse logit function. Estimates for Se and/or Sp of thetuberculin skin tests and the IFN- blood test were compared with estimates published 2010–2015.Median Se for the single intradermal comparative cervical tuberculin skin (SICCT) test (standard inter-pretation) was 0.50 and Bayesian credible intervals (CrI) were wide (95% CrI 0.26, 0.78). Median Sp forthe SICCT test was 1.00 (95% CrI 0.99, 1.00). Estimates for the IFN- blood test Bovine Purified ProteinDerivative (PPD)-Avian PPD and Early Secreted Antigen target 6 and Culture Filtrate Protein 10 (ESAT-6/CFP10) ESAT6/CFP10 were 0.67 (95% CrI 0.49, 0.82) and 0.78 (95% CrI 0.60, 0.90) respectively for Se,and 0.98 (95% CrI 0.96, 0.99) and 0.99 (95% CrI 0.99, 1.00) for Sp. The study provides an overview of theaccuracy of a range of contemporary diagnostic tests for bTB in cattle. Better understanding of diagnostictest performance is essential for the design of effective control strategies and their evaluation.The SE3238 project “Meta-analysis of diagnostic tests and modelling to identify appropriate testing strategies to reduce M. bovis infection in GB herds” was funded by the UK Department for Envi-ronment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra)

Palynological and chemical volatile components of tipically autumnal honeys of the western Mediterranean

[EN] Twenty-five samples of autumnal honeys from the western Mediterranean (Mallorca and Eivissa, Balearic Islands) were examined for pollen content (qualitative and quantitative melissopalynological analysis), moisture, electrical conductivity, colour, sensorial qualities and volatile components. Quantitative analysis showed that the honey contained Maurizio's Class II: 64%, Class III: 28%, Class IV: 4% and Class V: 4%. Fifty-four pollen types, with an average number of 16.68 per sample, were identified, belonging to 29 botanical families. Only two taxa (Ceratonia siliqua and Erica multiflora) were found in all samples. Seventeen samples were unifloral (68%) - ten (40%) of C. siliqua, six (24%) of E. multiflora and one (4%) of Hedera helix. All honeys have a low honeydew index (<?0.09%), while the values for electrical conductivity and water content were high. The major honey volatile components are: cis- and trans-linalool oxides (64.2%) and hotrienol (10.4%) for the carob (C. siliqua) and trans-linalool oxide (13.4%), p-menthane-1,8-diol (11.1%), safranal (9.7%), limonene (5,4%), -pinene (3.7%) and oxoisophorone (3.4%) for the winter heather (E. multiflora).The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Mallorca Rural 'Leader plus' programme and the beekeepers of Mallorca and Eivissa for their support and friendly collaboration. The authors also thank an anonymous reviewer for useful comments and suggestions on an earlier version of the manuscript.Boi, M.; Llorens Molina, JA.; Cortés, L.; Lladó, G.; Llorens, L. (2013). Palynological and chemical volatile components of tipically autumnal honeys of the western Mediterranean. Grana. 52(2):93-105. doi:10.1080/00173134.2012.744774S93105522Andrade, P. B., Amaral, M. T., Isabel, P., Carvalho, J. C. M. F., Seabra, R. M., & Proença da Cunha, A. (1999). Physicochemical attributes and pollen spectrum of Portuguese heather honeys. Food Chemistry, 66(4), 503-510. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(99)00100-4Anklam, E. (1998). A review of the analytical methods to determine the geographical and botanical origin of honey. Food Chemistry, 63(4), 549-562. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(98)00057-0Bosch, J., Del Pino, F. G., Ramoneda, J., & Retana, J. (1996). FRUITING PHENOLOGY AND FRUIT SET OF CAROB, CERATONIA SILIQUA L. (CESALPINACEAE). Israel Journal of Plant Sciences, 44(4), 359-368. doi:10.1080/07929978.1996.10676657Bouseta, A., Collin, S., & Dufour, J.-P. (1992). Characteristic aroma profiles of unifloral honeys obtained with a dynamic headspace GC-MS system. Journal of Apicultural Research, 31(2), 96-109. doi:10.1080/00218839.1992.11101268Cajka, T., Hajslova, J., Pudil, F., & Riddellova, K. (2009). Traceability of honey origin based on volatiles pattern processing by artificial neural networks. Journal of Chromatography A, 1216(9), 1458-1462. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2008.12.066Castro-Vázquez, L., Díaz-Maroto, M. C., González-Viñas, M. A., & Pérez-Coello, M. S. (2009). Differentiation of monofloral citrus, rosemary, eucalyptus, lavender, thyme and heather honeys based on volatile composition and sensory descriptive analysis. Food Chemistry, 112(4), 1022-1030. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.06.036Conti, M. E., Stripeikis, J., Campanella, L., Cucina, D., & Tudino, M. B. (2007). Characterization of Italian honeys (Marche Region) on the basis of their mineral content and some typical quality parameters. Chemistry Central Journal, 1(1). doi:10.1186/1752-153x-1-14Custódio, L., Serra, H., Nogueira, J. M. F., Gonçalves, S., & Romano, A. (2006). Analysis of the Volatiles Emitted by Whole Flowers and Isolated Flower Organs of the Carob Tree Using HS-SPME-GC/MS. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 32(5), 929-942. doi:10.1007/s10886-006-9044-9Cuevas-Glory, L., Ortiz-Vázquez, E., Pino, J. A., & Sauri-Duch, E. (2012). Floral classification of Yucatan Peninsula honeys by PCA & HS-SPME/GC-MS of volatile compounds. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 47(7), 1378-1383. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.02983.xDe Bolòs, O., & Molinier, R. (1984). Vegetation of the Pityusic Islands. Biogeography and Ecology of the Pityusic Islands, 185-221. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-6539-3_9De Maria, C. A. B., & Moreira, R. F. A. (2003). Compostos voláteis em méis florais. Química Nova, 26(1), 90-96. doi:10.1590/s0100-40422003000100016Guyot, C., Scheirman, V., & Collin, S. (1999). Floral origin markers of heather honeys: Calluna vulgaris and Erica arborea. Food Chemistry, 64(1), 3-11. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(98)00122-8Herrera, J. (1988). Pollination Relationships in Southern Spanish Mediterranean Shrublands. The Journal of Ecology, 76(1), 274. doi:10.2307/2260469Jerković, I., & Marijanović, Z. (2010). Volatile Composition Screening of Salix spp. Nectar Honey: Benzenecarboxylic Acids, Norisoprenoids, Terpenes, and Others. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 7(9), 2309-2325. doi:10.1002/cbdv.201000021Jones, G. D., & Bryant, Jr, V. M. (2004). The use of ETOH for the dilution of honey. Grana, 43(3), 174-182. doi:10.1080/00173130410019497Kummerow, J. (1983). Comparative Phenology of Mediterranean-Type Plant Communities. Ecological Studies, 300-317. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-68935-2_17La‐Serna Ramos, I. E., & GÓmez Ferreras, C. (2006). Pollen and sensorial characterization of different honeys from El Hierro (Canary Islands). Grana, 45(2), 146-159. doi:10.1080/00173130600578658Del Carmen Llasat, M., Ramis, C., & Barrantes, J. (1996). The meteorology of high‐intensity rainfall events over the west Mediterranean region. Remote Sensing Reviews, 14(1-3), 51-90. doi:10.1080/02757259609532313Louveaux, J., Maurizio, A., & Vorwohl, G. (1978). Methods of Melissopalynology. Bee World, 59(4), 139-157. doi:10.1080/0005772x.1978.11097714Martins, R. C., Lopes, V. V., Valentão, P., Carvalho, J. C. M. F., Isabel, P., Amaral, M. T., … Silva, B. M. (2008). Relevant principal component analysis applied to the characterisation of Portuguese heather honey. Natural Product Research, 22(17), 1560-1582. doi:10.1080/14786410701825004Melliou, E., & Chinou, I. (2011). Chemical constituents of selected unifloral Greek bee-honeys with antimicrobial activity. Food Chemistry, 129(2), 284-290. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.04.047Pendleton, M. (2006). Descriptions of melissopalynological methods involving centrifugation should include data for calculating Relative Centrifugal Force (RCF) or should express data in units of RCF or gravities (g). Grana, 45(1), 71-72. doi:10.1080/00173130500520479Pérez, R. A., Sánchez-Brunete, C., Calvo, R. M., & Tadeo, J. L. (2002). Analysis of Volatiles from Spanish Honeys by Solid-Phase Microextraction and Gas Chromatography−Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(9), 2633-2637. doi:10.1021/jf011551rPersano Oddo, L., Piana, L., Bogdanov, S., Bentabol, A., Gotsiou, P., Kerkvliet, J., … von der Ohe, K. (2004). Botanical species giving unifloral honey in Europe. Apidologie, 35(Suppl. 1), S82-S93. doi:10.1051/apido:2004045Persano Oddo, L., & Piro, R. (2004). Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets. Apidologie, 35(Suppl. 1), S38-S81. doi:10.1051/apido:2004049Piana, M. L., Persano Oddo, L., Bentabol, A., Bruneau, E., Bogdanov, S., & Guyot Declerck, C. (2004). Sensory analysis applied to honey: state of the art. Apidologie, 35(Suppl. 1), S26-S37. doi:10.1051/apido:2004048Piasenzotto, L., Gracco, L., & Conte, L. (2003). Solid phase microextraction (SPME) applied to honey quality control. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 83(10), 1037-1044. doi:10.1002/jsfa.1502Radovic, B. S., Careri, M., Mangia, A., Musci, M., Gerboles, M., & Anklam, E. (2001). Contribution of dynamic headspace GC–MS analysis of aroma compounds to authenticity testing of honey. Food Chemistry, 72(4), 511-520. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(00)00263-6RAMÓN-LACA, L., & MABBERLEY, D. J. (2004). The ecological status of the carob-tree (Ceratonia siliqua, Leguminosae) in the Mediterranean. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 144(4), 431-436. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00254.xRetana, J., Ramoneda, J., Garcia Del Pino, F., & Bosch, J. (1994). Flowering phenology of carob,Ceratonia siliquaL. (Cesalpinaceae). Journal of Horticultural Science, 69(1), 97-103. doi:10.1080/14620316.1994.11515254Ricciardelli d’Albore, G. & Vorwohl, G. (1979). Mieles monoflorales en el Mediterráneo documentado con ayuda del análisis microscópico de mieles. Actas de XXVII Congreso Internacional de Apicultura, Athens, Greece, 14–20 September 1979, 201–208.Pilar de Sá‐Otero, M., Armesto‐Baztan, S., & DÍaz‐Losada, E. (2006). A study of variation in the pollen spectra of honeys sampled from the Baixa Limia‐Serra do Xurés Nature Reserve in north‐west Spain. Grana, 45(2), 137-145. doi:10.1080/00173130600708537Seijo, M. C., Jato, M. V., Aira, M. J., & Iglesias, I. (1997). Unifloral honeys of Galicia (north-west Spain). Journal of Apicultural Research, 36(3-4), 133-140. doi:10.1080/00218839.1997.11100939Terrab, A., Diez, M. J., & Heredia, F. J. (2003). Palynological, physico-chemical and colour characterization of Moroccan honeys: III. Other unifloral honey types. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 38(4), 395-402. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2621.2003.00713.xTERRAB, A., PONTES, A., HEREDIA, F. J., & DÍEZ, M. J. (2004). A preliminary palynological characterization of Spanish thyme honeys. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 146(3), 323-330. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2004.00335.xTerrab, A., Valdés, B., & Josefa Díez, M. (2003). Pollen analysis of honeys from the Mamora forest region (NW Morocco). Grana, 42(1), 47-54. doi:10.1080/00173130310008580Thompson, J. D. (2005). Plant Evolution in the Mediterranean. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198515340.001.0001Von Der Ohe, W., Persano Oddo, L., Piana, M. L., Morlot, M., & Martin, P. (2004). Harmonized methods of melissopalynology. Apidologie, 35(Suppl. 1), S18-S25. doi:10.1051/apido:2004050VORWOHL, G. (1964). DIE BEZIEHUNGEN ZWISCHEN DER ELEKTRISCHEN LEITFÄHIGKEIT DER HONIGE UND IHRER TRACHTMÄSSIGEN HERKUNFT. Annales de l’Abeille, 7(4), 301-309. doi:10.1051/apido:19640403Vorwohl, G. (1967). The microscopic analysis of honey, a comparison of its methods with those of the other branches of palynology. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 3(1-4), 287-290. doi:10.1016/0034-6667(67)90061-

Hydroxychloroquine is associated with a lower risk of polyautoimmunity: data from the RELESSER Registry

OBJECTIVES: This article estimates the frequency of polyautoimmunity and associated factors in a large retrospective cohort of patients with SLE. METHODS: RELESSER (Spanish Society of Rheumatology Lupus Registry) is a nationwide multicentre, hospital-based registry of SLE patients. This is a cross-sectional study. The main variable was polyautoimmunity, which was defined as the co-occurrence of SLE and another autoimmune disease, such as autoimmune thyroiditis, RA, scleroderma, inflammatory myopathy and MCTD. We also recorded the presence of multiple autoimmune syndrome, secondary SS, secondary APS and a family history of autoimmune disease. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to investigate possible risk factors for polyautoimmunity. RESULTS: Of the 3679 patients who fulfilled the criteria for SLE, 502 (13.6%) had polyautoimmunity. The most frequent types were autoimmune thyroiditis (7.9%), other systemic autoimmune diseases (6.2%), secondary SS (14.1%) and secondary APS (13.7%). Multiple autoimmune syndrome accounted for 10.2% of all cases of polyautoimmunity. A family history was recorded in 11.8%. According to the multivariate analysis, the factors associated with polyautoimmunity were female sex [odds ratio (95% CI), 1.72 (1.07, 2.72)], RP [1.63 (1.29, 2.05)], interstitial lung disease [3.35 (1.84, 6.01)], Jaccoud arthropathy [1.92 (1.40, 2.63)], anti-Ro/SSA and/or anti-La/SSB autoantibodies [2.03 (1.55, 2.67)], anti-RNP antibodies [1.48 (1.16, 1.90)], MTX [1.67 (1.26, 2.18)] and antimalarial drugs [0.50 (0.38, 0.67)]. CONCLUSION: Patients with SLE frequently present polyautoimmunity. We observed clinical and analytical characteristics associated with polyautoimmunity. Our finding that antimalarial drugs protected against polyautoimmunity should be verified in future studies

Whole Genome Sequencing Reveals Local Transmission Patterns of Mycobacterium bovis in Sympatric Cattle and Badger Populations

Whole genome sequencing (WGS) technology holds great promise as a tool for the forensic epidemiology of bacterial pathogens. It is likely to be particularly useful for studying the transmission dynamics of an observed epidemic involving a largely unsampled &lsquo;reservoir' host, as for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in British and Irish cattle and badgers. BTB is caused by Mycobacterium bovis, a member of the M. tuberculosis complex that also includes the aetiological agent for human TB. In this study, we identified a spatio-temporally linked group of 26 cattle and 4 badgers infected with the same Variable Number Tandem Repeat (VNTR) type of M. bovis. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between sequences identified differences that were consistent with bacterial lineages being persistent on or near farms for several years, despite multiple clear whole herd tests in the interim. Comparing WGS data to mathematical models showed good correlations between genetic divergence and spatial distance, but poor correspondence to the network of cattle movements or within-herd contacts. Badger isolates showed between zero and four SNP differences from the nearest cattle isolate, providing evidence for recent transmissions between the two hosts. This is the first direct genetic evidence of M. bovis persistence on farms over multiple outbreaks with a continued, ongoing interaction with local badgers. However, despite unprecedented resolution, directionality of transmission cannot be inferred at this stage. Despite the often notoriously long timescales between time of infection and time of sampling for TB, our results suggest that WGS data alone can provide insights into TB epidemiology even where detailed contact data are not available, and that more extensive sampling and analysis will allow for quantification of the extent and direction of transmission between cattle and badgers

Spatial and Temporal Trends of Global Pollination Benefit

Pollination is a well-studied and at the same time a threatened ecosystem service. A significant part of global crop production depends on or profits from pollination by animals. Using detailed information on global crop yields of 60 pollination dependent or profiting crops, we provide a map of global pollination benefits on a 5′ by 5′ latitude-longitude grid. The current spatial pattern of pollination benefits is only partly correlated with climate variables and the distribution of cropland. The resulting map of pollination benefits identifies hot spots of pollination benefits at sufficient detail to guide political decisions on where to protect pollination services by investing in structural diversity of land use. Additionally, we investigated the vulnerability of the national economies with respect to potential decline of pollination services as the portion of the (agricultural) economy depending on pollination benefits. While the general dependency of the agricultural economy on pollination seems to be stable from 1993 until 2009, we see increases in producer prices for pollination dependent crops, which we interpret as an early warning signal for a conflict between pollination service and other land uses at the global scale. Our spatially explicit analysis of global pollination benefit points to hot spots for the generation of pollination benefits and can serve as a base for further planning of land use, protection sites and agricultural policies for maintaining pollination services