Performance of the PROSPECT leaf radiative transfer model version 4 for Norway spruce needles

Leaf optical properties (LOPs) are a key input parameter for vegetation canopy radiative transfer models. The uncertainty introduced in the measurement and/or the simulation of this spectral information determines a final reliability of the modelled canopy reflectance. The broad-leaf radiative transfer model PROSPECT version 3.01 has been previously applied for some needle-leaf type species (e.g. pine trees) to estimate biochemical parameters through its inversion. Nevertheless, in a particular case of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) PROSPECT 3.01 showed a poor performance in near infrared wavelengths and had to be recalibrated. Therefore, the applicability of PROSPECT version 4, which has been recently released, is verified for this type of leaves in this experiment. Forward simulations of an optimized version of the original PROSPECT 4 suggest that it is possible to reduce the average RMSE of reflectance and transmittance from 8% to 3.5- 4 % in the near infrared domain. For this achievement, the absorption coefficients for chlorophyll and dry matter together with the refractive index had to be simultaneously optimized via model inversion using measured LOPs of Norway spruce needles

Influence of cosine corrector and UAS platform dynamics on airborne spectral irradiance measurements

Measuring solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence from small-sized Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) can potentially fill the scaling gap between ground-based and airborne/space-borne observations. These measurements require well calibrated' high-spectral resolution spectroradiometers and precise measurements of vegetation radiance and incoming solar irradiance. Here we present a system equipped with a spectroradiometer with a split optical path that measures incoming irradiance through a cosine corrector/diffuser. The objectives of this study are to characterise cosine corrected solar irradiance measurements with regard to sensor homogeneity and possible offset from an ideal cosine response. We further suggest a methodology to calculate a corrected zenith angle that accounts for changing sensor orientation due to pitch, roll and heading of the UAS platform during flight. We found that the cosine corrector is sufficiently homogeneous, thus measurements are independent of UAS heading. The response follows the cosine law for zenith angles, however, the sensor significantly underestimated irradiance for zenith angles > 10°, with overall cosine errors ranging from 0.991 to 1.229. Yet, typical in-flight platform pitch and roll angles produce a zenith angle offset of up to 6° in low wind conditions. Cosine sensor measurements corrected for the zenith angle offset and the cosine error resulted in a 1.7 % change in irradiance

Assessing vegetation function with imaging spectroscopy

Healthy vegetation function supports diverse biological communities and ecosystem processes, and provides crops, forest products, forage, and countless other benefits. Vegetation function can be assessed by examining dynamic processes and by evaluating plant traits, which themselves are dynamic. Using both trait-based and process-based approaches, spectroscopy can assess vegetation function at multiple scales using a variety of sensors and platforms ranging from proximal to airborne and satellite measurements. Since spectroscopic data are defined by the instruments and platforms available, along with their corresponding spatial, temporal and spectral scales, and since these scales may not always match those of the function of interest, consideration of scale is a necessary focus. For a full understanding of vegetation processes, combined (multi-scale) sampling methods using empirical and theoretical approaches are required, along with improved informatics

Discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART 5) for modeling airborne and satellite spectroradiometer and LIDAR acquisitions of natural and urban landscapes

International audienceSatellite and airborne optical sensors are increasingly used by scientists, and policy makers, and managers for studying and managing forests, agriculture crops, and urban areas. Their data acquired with given instrumental specifications (spectral resolution, viewing direction, sensor field-of-view, etc.) and for a specific experimental configuration (surface and atmosphere conditions, sun direction, etc.) are commonly translated into qualitative and quantitative Earth surface parameters. However, atmosphere properties and Earth surface 3D architecture often confound their interpretation. Radiative transfer models capable of simulating the Earth and atmosphere complexity are, therefore, ideal tools for linking remotely sensed data to the surface parameters. Still, many existing models are oversimplifying the Earth-atmosphere system interactions and their parameterization of sensor specifications is often neglected or poorly considered. The Discrete Anisotropic Radiative Transfer (DART) model is one of the most comprehensive physically based 3D models simulating the Earth-atmosphere radiation interaction from visible to thermal infrared wavelengths. It has been developed since 1992. It models optical signals at the entrance of imaging radiometers and laser scanners on board of satellites and airplanes, as well as the 3D radiative budget, of urban and natural landscapes for any experimental configuration and instrumental specification. It is freely distributed for research and teaching activities. This paper presents DART physical bases and its latest functionality for simulating imaging spectroscopy of natural and urban landscapes with atmosphere, including the perspective projection of airborne acquisitions and LIght Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) waveform and photon counting signals

Frequently asked questions about chlorophyll fluorescence, the sequel

[EN] Using chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence many aspects of the photosynthetic apparatus can be studied, both in vitro and, noninvasively, in vivo. Complementary techniques can help to interpret changes in the Chl a fluorescence kinetics. Kalaji et al. (Photosynth Res 122: 121-158, 2014a) addressed several questions about instruments, methods and applications based on Chl a fluorescence. Here, additionalChl a fluorescence-related topics are discussed again in a question and answer format. Examples are the effect of connectivity on photochemical quenching, the correction of F-V/F-M values for PSI fluorescence, the energy partitioning concept, the interpretation of the complementary area, probing the donor side of PSII, the assignment of bands of 77 K fluorescence emission spectra to fluorescence emitters, the relationship between prompt and delayed fluorescence, potential problems when sampling tree canopies, the use of fluorescence parameters in QTL studies, the use of Chl a fluorescence in biosensor applications and the application of neural network approaches for the analysis of fluorescence measurements. The answers draw on knowledge fromdifferent Chl a fluorescence analysis domains, yielding in several cases new insights.Kalaji, H.; Schansker, G.; Brestic, M.; Bussotti, F.; Calatayud, A.; Ferroni, L.; Goltsev, V.... (2017). Frequently asked questions about chlorophyll fluorescence, the sequel. 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Quantitative remote sensing of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.): spectroscopy from needles to crowns to canopies

Mountain ecosystems represent nearly one fourth of the Earth's land surface, and provide (ecosystem) services to a significant part of the world's human population. As was noted in the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) inRio de Janeiro(Agenda 21), these ecosystems are experiencing rapid degradation due to environmental and human impact at the local scale having, however, a global spread. This work contributes to the spatial monitoring of mountain forest ecosystems dominated byNorwayspruce trees ( Picea abies (L.) Karst.) through developing new quantitative approaches using optical hyperspectral remote sensing.A common denominator for all experiments described and performed throughout this work is spectroscopy, used in combination with ecological reasoning and physically based bottom-up scaling approaches. The spectral information acquired at the level of leaves (needles) is scaled up to the level of tree crowns and then to the level of forest canopies by means of radiative transfer modelling. This up-scaling method is based fully on cause-effect relations of vegetation-photon interaction allowing for its subsequent numerical inversion. We have employed radiative transfer models to develop an inversion routine for the retrieval of quantitative forest canopy biochemical (concentration of chlorophyll) and biophysical (leaf area index) parameters based on hyperspectral data acquired by theAirborne Imaging Spectroradiometer (AISA)Eagle.The starting point of this work was the calibration and validation of the leaf radiative transfer model PROSPECT (leaf optical PROperties SPECTra) for Norway spruce needles at wavelengths ranging from 450-1000 nm. Simultaneously, an investigation on the variability in hemispherical-directional reflectance, transmittance and absorptance of sunlit spruce needle samples was carried out for environmental stress resistant and stress resilient spruce crowns. Recalibration of the PROSPECT chlorophyll and dry matter specific absorption coefficients kab (l) and km (l) resulted in close agreement of the PROSPECT simulated needle optical properties with the spectral measurements of three investigated needle age-classes. The root mean square error (RMSE) between simulated and measured needle reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance signatures was 1.74%, 1.53%, and 2.91%, respectively. Testing the adjusted PROSPECT model for total chlorophyll concentration, dry matter content, and leaf water content retrieved simultaneously from laboratory based spectrometer measurements of independent needle samples showed an improved performance.When comparing sunlit needles of primary shoots of the two environmental stress response classes, significant quantitative differences were discovered at red edge (710-715 nm) and green (540-565 nm) wavelengths with respect to the variability in needle optical properties. These differences are related to the changes in the concentration of the foliar pigments, which proved to be significantly lower for needles of stress resilient trees. High variability in qualitative spectral characteristics was found at wavelengths relating to far-red (740 nm) and green (530 nm) fluorescence emissions. No significant spectral variation was found within the near infrared wavelengths of the tested needles. Consequently, we conclude that sunlit needle samples of a specific age-class collected from a randomly selected branch within two tested crown parts were representative for both of them, but they are optically different if collected from stress resistant or stress resilient crowns.The needle optical properties were up-scaled to the crowns and to the canopies by the 3-dimensional Discrete Anisotropic Radiative Transfer (DART) model. A detailed sensitivity analysis investigating the effect of woody elements introduced into the DART model on the nadir bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) was performed at a very high spatial resolution (0.4 m) before its direct use for the Norway spruce canopy. The sensitivity analysis was performed separately for both sunlit and shaded parts of the simulated forest canopy and it was validated against BRF measurements at the same spatial resolution acquired over the simulated forest stand by the AISA sensor. Results showed a nadir BRF for the Norway spruce canopy modelled as pure foliage to be similar to the one for foliage including only robust woody constituents (i.e., trunks and branches of first order). The incorporation of small woody parts in DART caused the nadir canopy reflectance to decrease in the near-infrared (NIR) about 4%, in the red edge about 2%, and in the green bands less than 1%. These findings stressed the importance of including fine woody elements in radiative transfer based retrievals of the forest canopy properties at very high spatial resolution, especially if the NIR wavelengths are exploited.The coupled radiative transfer models PROSPECT and DART were employed to develop and test the sensitivity of a robust chlorophyll estimating optical index for a heterogeneous coniferous forest canopy. A newly proposed index named 'Area under curve Normalized to Maximal Band depth between 650-725nm' (ANMB 650-725 ) is based on the continuum removal method applied on reflectance spectra. The approach is taking advantage of the fine spectral resolution and sampling interval of hyperspectral images to isolate the chlorophyll absorption feature between 650 and 725 nm. The results, obtained from simulated hyperspectral data with a pixel size of0.9 m, showed a strong linear relationship of the ANMB 650-725 with spruce crown C ab concentration (r 2 = 0.9798) and an insensitivity for varying canopy structural features such as LAI and canopy closure. Chlorophyll concentration retrieval using the ANMB 650-725 index remained stable also after introduction of the spectral information of epiphytic lichen ( Pseudevernia sp.) and an increased sensor noise (signal to noise ratio equal to five).It can be concluded from this work that up-scaling procedures from needles to crowns to canopies can be successfully applied in mountain ecosystems. In particular the quantitative, physical based approaches proved to be robust and further helped to refine radiative transfer based models. In the near future, we will be seeing a number of spaceborne missions being realized (e.g., either of hyper- or super-spectral nature), where the presented up-scaling approaches can significantly contribute to increased variable retrieval accuracy. The integration of such derived products into an assessment programme for monitoring and forecasting the development of forest ecosystem services (e.g., Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)) is a logical consequence of this work