Transitiveness of Passive Forms in Homer Based on the First Book of the Iliad

The deliberations presented in the article are the attempt to bring closer and verify the views on the transitiveness, to point some difficulties and make some suggestions about possible classifications. The general aim, however, is to analyse specific examples, i.e. the passive forms that occur in the first book of the Iliad. It seems that the presented method of analysing the text may give a chance for new interpretation, increase the preciseness and eliminate the burden of the traditional notions

"Filologotati psychi" - rozprawa gramatyczna przypisywana Teodorowi Prodromosowi i jej adresat

Wskazanie w tekście adresatki jest zabiegiem pełniącym dwie funkcje. Po pierwsze, podkreśla dydaktyczny charakter pracy, nadaje jej formę wykładu. Po drugie, gramatyczny traktat nabiera wydźwięku polityczno-towarzyskiego. W świetle analizy rzeczownikowych zwrotów do adresatki, ich szerszego kontekstu w całej pracy i wybranych przykładów, które autor przytacza, omawiając poszczególne zagadnienia, dostrzec można bowiem intencję pochwały i wkupienia się w łaski adresatki. Decydują o tym: odpowiedni dobór pozytywnych określeń odnoszących się do odbiorcy, przedstawianie w bardzo dobrym świetle utworu, do którego się odnosi, pochwała własnej pracy i wskazanie na szczególne dokonania autora oraz stosowanie przykładów gramatycznych, które poza funkcją egzemplifikacyjną niosą dodatkowe, pochlebne treści odnoszące się do władcy, a więc pośrednio także do adresatki. Wszystkie te elementy są tym wyraźniejsze, że wyróżniają się na tle treści wyłącznie gramatycznych. Wyłaniający się z tekstu obraz adresatki i nastawienie autora względem niej odpowiadają relacji z możnym protektorem, o której wspomniano wcześniej. Otwarta zostaje kwestia oryginalności formy wprowadzenia adresata do tekstu gramatycznego, którą ocenić będzie można w zestawieniu z innymi traktatami o podobnej tematyce, a także na tle pozostałych dzieł Prodromosa

Tobacco smoking among the first-year medical students

The studies have shown that despite studying medicine the rate of tobacco smokers among students is still high. Moreover, in Poland the incidence of smoking is increasing among the youngsters. The study was designed to assess the rate of smokers among the first-year students of two consecutive courses at the Medical University of Gdańsk and define their attitudes towards tobacco smoking. The voluntary, multiple-choice questionnaires were distributed among 412 students. The rate of response was 100%. Twenty one percent of responders were current smokers (17% females and 28% men), whereas 7% declared previous smoking. There was no correlation between incidence of smoking among students and their parents (p = 0.11). 61% of smokers declared the will to give up their habit and of those 94% were aware of the negative impact of cigarettes on their health. In the group which did not declare the will to quit smoking only 75% knew what the impact of cigarettes on their health was; p = 0.02. Only 23% of smokers considered anti-nicotine therapy effective. Almost a half of smokers considered nicotine replacement therapy ineffective for them in quitting cigarette smoking. Conclusion: The rate of smokers among the first-year medical students is lower than in general population, but it is still relatively high. However more than a half of smokers wants to give up their habit. Of those who are not willing to, 25% is not aware of the cigarettes’ impact on their health. These results call for further anti-nicotine actions

Postawy wobec palenia tytoniu wśród studentów I i VI roku medycyny z rocznika studiów 2002-2008

Wstęp: Zjawisko palenia tytoniu wśród studentów medycyny wskazuje, że studia medyczne nie stanowią wystarczającej bariery przed kontynuowaniem, a nawet rozpoczynaniem palenia. Celem badania była ocena postaw wobec palenia wśród studentów I i VI roku Wydziału Lekarskiego Gdańskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego z rocznika studiów 2002-2008. Materiał i metody: Wśród studentów rocznika studiów 2002-2008 dwukrotnie, na I i VI roku, rozprowadzono ankietę zawierającą pytania na temat kwestii związanych z paleniem tytoniu. W ankiecie adresowanej do studentów VI roku zawarto dodatkowe pytania, umożliwiające ocenę zmian w postawach studentów wobec palenia w trakcie studiów, a także poznanie opinii respondentów na temat nauczania na studiach rozpoznawania i leczenia zespołu uzależnienia od tytoniu (ZUT) oraz ich samooceny posiadanej wiedzy w tym zakresie. W badaniu wzięło udział 287 studentów I roku i 175 studentów VI roku badanego rocznika. Wyniki: Wraz z końcem studiów studenci istotnie rzadziej regularnie palili papierosy niż na I roku (13% v. 21%; p = 0,022), jednak co piąta paląca osoba (20%) zaczęła palić papierosy w trakcie studiów medycznych. Odsetek palaczy, którzy palili bez większego skrępowania, był istotnie niższy, niż na początku studiów (31% v. 70%; p = 0,0006), stwierdzono także znacząco wyższe odsetki palaczy deklarujących chęć porzucenia nałogu (91% v. 61%; p = 0,013) oraz codziennych palaczy, którzy chcieliby poddać się leczeniu uzależnienia od tytoniu (54% v. 22%; p = 0,001). Ponad połowa studentów VI roku przyznała, że nie ma żadnej wiedzy na temat rozpoznawania i leczenia ZUT lub ich wiedza na ten temat jest bardzo słaba lub słaba (57%). Aż 43% badanych stwierdziło, że studia medyczne w ogóle nie były dla nich źródłem wiedzy o ZUT. Wnioski: Studia medyczne wpływają na pozytywne zmiany postaw studentów wobec palenia tytoniu. Jednak część osób podejmuje palenie na studiach, co sugeruje dominujący udział czynników genetycznych nad środowiskowymi w rozpoczynaniu palenia w tym okresie życia. W opinii przyszłych lekarzy studia medyczne nie są wystarczającym źródłem wiedzy o ZUT.Introduction: The prevalence of smoking among medical students indicates that studying medicine is an insufficient protection from tobacco use. The aim of the study was an analysis of medical students’ attitudes towards smoking at the first and sixth year of their studies. Material and methods: A questionnaire on tobacco smoking was distributed among medical students of the study year 2002-2008 at the first and sixth year of their studies. The questionnaire used on the sixth year students included additional questions designed to assess changes in their attitudes towards smoking during their studies, to ask their opinion of the teaching of diagnostics and treatment of tobacco dependence (TD), and to discover how they evaluated their knowledge of the issue. The numbers of students who participated at the two points of the study were 287 and 175 respectively. Results: Students in their sixth year significantly less frequently smoked cigarettes regularly than those starting their medical education (13% v. 21%; p = 0.022). However, 20% of smokers started smoking during their studies. The proportion of smokers saying they were not embarrassed by their smoking habit was significantly lower among sixth-year students compared to first-year students (31% v. 70%; p = 0.0006), as were the numbers who said they wanted to quit smoking (91% v. 61%). Those who wished to undergo treatment for TD (54% v. 22%) were significantly higher among sixth year students group (p = 0.013 and p = 0.001, respectively). More than half (57%) the sixth-year students claimed that they had no knowledge of the diagnostics and treatment of TD, or that their knowledge on this issue was poor or very poor. In the opinion of 43% of students, the medical curriculum was not a good source of knowledge on TD. Conclusions: Medical studies induce positively students’ attitudes towards smoking. However, a proportion of individuals start smoking during studies, which may suggest dominance of genetic influences on smoking initiation in this period of life. In sixth-year students’ opinion, medical studies are not a sufficient source of knowledge on TD

Targeting of the Tumor Suppressor GRHL3 by a miR-21-Dependent Proto-Oncogenic Network Results in PTEN Loss and Tumorigenesis

SummaryDespite its prevalence, the molecular basis of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) remains poorly understood. Here, we identify the developmental transcription factor Grhl3 as a potent tumor suppressor of SCC in mice, and demonstrate that targeting of Grhl3 by a miR-21-dependent proto-oncogenic network underpins SCC in humans. Deletion of Grhl3 in adult epidermis evokes loss of expression of PTEN, a direct GRHL3 target, resulting in aggressive SCC induced by activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling. Restoration of Pten expression completely abrogates SCC formation. Reduced levels of GRHL3 and PTEN are evident in human skin, and head and neck SCC, associated with increased expression of miR-21, which targets both tumor suppressors. Our data define the GRHL3-PTEN axis as a critical tumor suppressor pathway in SCC

Mutations in <em>GRHL2</em> result in an autosomal-recessive ectodermal dysplasia syndrome

Grainyhead-like 2, encoded by GRHL2, is a member of a highly conserved family of transcription factors that play essential roles during epithelial development. Haploinsufficiency for GRHL2 has been implicated in autosomal-dominant deafness, but mutations have not yet been associated with any skin pathology. We investigated two unrelated Kuwaiti families in which a total of six individuals have had lifelong ectodermal defects. The clinical features comprised nail dystrophy or nail loss, marginal palmoplantar keratoderma, hypodontia, enamel hypoplasia, oral hyperpigmentation, and dysphagia. In addition, three individuals had sensorineural deafness, and three had bronchial asthma. Taken together, the features were consistent with an unusual autosomal-recessive ectodermal dysplasia syndrome. Because of consanguinity in both families, we used whole-exome sequencing to search for novel homozygous DNA variants and found GRHL2 mutations common to both families: affected subjects in one family were homozygous for c.1192T>C (p.Tyr398His) in exon 9, and subjects in the other family were homozygous for c.1445T>A (p.Ile482Lys) in exon 11. Immortalized keratinocytes (p.Ile482Lys) showed altered cell morphology, impaired tight junctions, adhesion defects, and cytoplasmic translocation of GRHL2. Whole-skin transcriptomic analysis (p.Ile482Lys) disclosed changes in genes implicated in networks of cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion. Our clinical findings of an autosomal-recessive ectodermal dysplasia syndrome provide insight into the role of GRHL2 in skin development, homeostasis, and human disease

Over-expression of Grhl2 causes spina bifida in the Axial defects mutant mouse

Cranial neural tube defects (NTDs) occur in mice carrying mutant alleles of many different genes, whereas isolated spinal NTDs (spina bifida) occur in fewer models, despite being common human birth defects. Spina bifida occurs at high frequency in the Axial defects (Axd) mouse mutant but the causative gene is not known. In the current study, the Axd mutation was mapped by linkage analysis. Within the critical genomic region, sequencing did not reveal a coding mutation whereas expression analysis demonstrated significant up-regulation of grainyhead-like 2 (Grhl2) in Axd mutant embryos. Expression of other candidate genes did not differ between genotypes. In order to test the hypothesis that over-expression of Grhl2 causes Axd NTDs, we performed a genetic cross to reduce Grhl2 function in Axd heterozygotes. Grhl2 loss of function mutant mice were generated and displayed both cranial and spinal NTDs. Compound heterozygotes carrying both loss (Grhl2 null) and putative gain of function (Axd) alleles exhibited normalization of spinal neural tube closure compared with Axd/+ littermates, which exhibit delayed closure. Grhl2 is expressed in the surface ectoderm and hindgut endoderm in the spinal region, overlapping with grainyhead-like 3 (Grhl3). Axd mutants display delayed eyelid closure, as reported in Grhl3 null embryos. Moreover, Axd mutant embryos exhibited increased ventral curvature of the spinal region and reduced proliferation in the hindgut, reminiscent of curly tail embryos, which carry a hypomorphic allele of Grhl3. Overall, our data suggest that defects in Axd mutant embryos result from over-expression of Grhl2

Desmoglein 1–dependent suppression of EGFR signaling promotes epidermal differentiation and morphogenesis

Dsg1 (desmoglein 1) is a member of the cadherin family of Ca2+-dependent cell adhesion molecules that is first expressed in the epidermis as keratinocytes transit out of the basal layer and becomes concentrated in the uppermost cell layers of this stratified epithelium. In this study, we show that Dsg1 is not only required for maintaining epidermal tissue integrity in the superficial layers but also supports keratinocyte differentiation and suprabasal morphogenesis. Dsg1 lacking N-terminal ectodomain residues required for adhesion remained capable of promoting keratinocyte differentiation. Moreover, this capability did not depend on cytodomain interactions with the armadillo protein plakoglobin or coexpression of its companion suprabasal cadherin, Dsc1 (desmocollin 1). Instead, Dsg1 was required for suppression of epidermal growth factor receptor–Erk1/2 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2) signaling, thereby facilitating keratinocyte progression through a terminal differentiation program. In addition to serving as a rigid anchor between adjacent cells, this study implicates desmosomal cadherins as key components of a signaling axis governing epithelial morphogenesis

The Functions of Grainy Head-Like Proteins in Animals and Fungi and the Evolution of Apical Extracellular Barriers

The Grainy head (GRH) family of transcription factors are crucial for the development and repair of epidermal barriers in all animals in which they have been studied. This is a high-level functional conservation, as the known structural and enzymatic genes regulated by GRH proteins differ between species depending on the type of epidermal barrier being formed. Interestingly, members of the CP2 superfamily of transcription factors, which encompasses the GRH and LSF families in animals, are also found in fungi – organisms that lack epidermal tissues. To shed light on CP2 protein function in fungi, we characterized a Neurospora crassa mutant lacking the CP2 member we refer to as grainy head-like (grhl). We show that Neurospora GRHL has a DNA-binding specificity similar to that of animal GRH proteins and dissimilar to that of animal LSF proteins. Neurospora grhl mutants are defective in conidial-spore dispersal due to an inability to remodel the cell wall, and we show that grhl mutants and the long-known conidial separation-2 (csp-2) mutants are allelic. We then characterized the transcriptomes of both Neurospora grhl mutants and Drosophila grh mutant embryos to look for similarities in the affected genes. Neurospora grhl appears to play a role in the development and remodeling of the cell wall, as well as in the activation of genes involved in defense and virulence. Drosophila GRH is required to activate the expression of many genes involved in cuticular/epidermal-barrier formation. We also present evidence that GRH plays a role in adult antimicrobial defense. These results, along with previous studies of animal GRH proteins, suggest the fascinating possibility that the apical extracellular barriers of some animals and fungi might share an evolutionary connection, and that the formation of physical barriers in the last common ancestor was under the control of a transcriptional code that included GRH-like proteins