Kommunala aktiebolag - Om verkningarna av kompetensöverskridande i av kommunen helägda aktiebolag

Att kommuner väljer att bedriva delar av den kommunala verksamheten genom helägda aktiebolag är något som har förekommit i Sverige under en lång tid tillbaka. Däremot blir verksamhetsformen allt vanligare och antalet kommunala aktiebolag ökar för varje år som går. Det finns flera fördelar med att bolagisera den kommunala verksamheten. Aktiebolaget som verksamhetsform bidrar bland annat till en effektivare förvaltning och ett lättare samspel med andra aktörer. Med bolagiseringen följer dock även en ökad risk för kompetensöverskridande verksamhet. Uppsatsen behandlar kommunalrättens och aktiebolagsrättens inflytande över det kommunala aktiebolaget med syfte att klargöra vilka sanktioner som ett kompetensöverskridande i den kommunala verksamheten kan ge upphov till. De huvudsakliga frågeställningarna i uppsatsen är: Hur ser de kommunalrättsliga respektive aktiebolagsrättsliga kompetensreglerna ut? Vilka kompetensregler binder företrädarna för ett kommunalt aktiebolag? Vilka sanktioner kan följa av överskridande av den kommunalrättsliga respektive den aktiebolagsrättsliga kompetensen? Den kommunala verksamheten ska bedrivas i enlighet med den kommunala kompetensen som framgår av 2 kap. 1 § KL samt av vissa kommunalrättsliga principer. När en del av den kommunala verksamheten överförs till ett aktiebolag upphör den emellertid att vara bunden av de kommunala kompetensreglerna och istället blir verksamheten föremål för aktiebolagsrättens regler om kompetens. Den kommunala kompetensen kan däremot bli bindande även för aktiebolagets verksamhet genom en angivelse i bolagsordningen. I fall då en företrädare för det kommunala aktiebolaget agerar kompetensöverskridande finns det därmed bestämmelser om sanktioner i både ABL och KL som i varierande grad kan bli gällande beroende av vilken typ av kompetensregel som har överträtts

Värdet av en röst - en rättsekonomisk undersökning av röstvärdesdifferentierade aktier

Aktier med olika röstvärde vid bolagsstämman kan användas av aktiebolag i syfte att tillföra kapital utan att aktieägarna tvingas ge upp kontrollen av bo- laget. På så vis kan röstvärdesskilda aktier anses möjliggöra för en effektiv bolagsstyrning och för utökade möjligheter till expansion. Förekomsten av röstvärdesskilda aktier kan emellertid även anses utsätta mindre aktieägare för en oförutsebar risk att utnyttjas av kontrollaktieägaren. I uppsatsen under- söks de samhällsekonomiska effekterna av röstvärdesskilda aktier, i syfte att klargöra hur regleringen av rösträtten i aktier bör vara utformad för att generera högsta möjliga grad av samhälleligt välstånd. Ämnesvalet föranleddes av att Snap Inc. i början av 2017 börsnoterades på New York Stock Exchange genom en emission uteslutande av röstlösa aktier, ett förfarande som har be- mötts av såväl kritik som beröm. Enligt svensk rätt är det förbjudet för aktie- bolag att ge ut aktier som saknar rösträtt vid bolagsstämman. Däremot är aktier med skilda röstvärden tillåtna under förutsättning att röstvärdet i ett aktieslag inte överstiger tio gånger röstvärdet i ett annat aktieslag. Även om svenska aktiebolags möjligheter att diversifiera aktiernas röstvärden är be- gränsade har även den svenska regleringen utgjort ämne för rättspolitiska diskussioner. I uppsatsen genomförs en komparation av svensk rätt genom en undersökning av regleringen av röstvärdesdifferentiering i angloamerikanska, kontinental- europeiska och nordiska rättssystem. Undersökningen visar att det i såväl de angloamerikanska som de nordiska rättssystemen, med undantag av Sverige, är möjligt för publika aktiebolag att emittera aktier som helt saknar rösträtt vid bolagsstämman. Motsatsvis gäller ett generellt förbud mot röstvärdesdifferentiering, med vissa undantag, i de kontinentaleuropeiska rättssystemen. Den svenska regleringen kan således anses dela likheter med såväl de anglo- amerikanska som kontinentaleuropeiska rättssystemen genom ett generellt tillåtande av röstvärdesdifferentiering, men skiljer sig från övriga nordiska rättssystem genom förbudet mot röstlösa aktier. Grunden i den rättsekonomiska undersökningen som genomförs i uppsatsen är att det förekommer intressemotsättningar mellan aktiebolagets intressenter som kan ge upphov till marknadsmisslyckanden och således avsteg från en perfekt marknad. Det främsta argumentet för ett förbud mot aktier med skilda röstvärden och en tillämpning av principen om en aktie – en röst är att det finns en risk för att en kontrollaktieägare med ett innehav av röststarka aktier kommer att utnyttja övriga aktieägare i bolaget. Risken för exploatering är 3 detsamma som en risk att utsättas för externaliserade kostnader för kontroll- aktieägarens beslut. Detta utgör motiv för att vidta lagstiftningsåtgärder för att undanröja de externaliserade kostnaderna. Den rättsekonomiska undersökningen visar emellertid att marknaden kommer att beakta risken för exploatering och genomföra en värdering av de röstsvaga aktierna utifrån risken med investeringen. Att röstvärdesdifferentiering därtill medför fördelar för såväl marknadens aktörer som välståndet i samhället innebär att ett införande av ett förbud mot röstvärdesskilda aktier i svensk rätt inte kan anses motiverat. Snarare kan det anses föreligga skäl för att utvidga aktiebolagets möjligheter att diversifiera röstvärdet mellan aktieslagen och även att tillåta emissioner av helt röstlösa aktier.Dual-class shares with different voting rights may be used by companies as means for acquiring external financing without shareholders being forced to give up control of the company. Hence, shares with different voting rights may facilitate effective corporate governance and more extensive opportunities for expansion. However, such dual-class shares may be considered to ex- pose smaller shareholders to an excessive and unforeseeable risk of being exploited by the shareholders in control. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the socio-economic effects of regulating the shareholders’ right to vote at the Annual General Meeting. The topic of the essay was influenced by the IPO exercised by Snap Inc. in the beginning of 2017, when the company went public by exclusively issuing shares without voting rights, a process which has been met by both criticism and praise. According to Swedish law, companies may not issue shares without voting rights. However, companies registered in Sweden may issue dual-class shares with different voting rights, provided that the difference between the voting rights of the classes does not exceed a ratio of 1:10. Although the ability for Swedish companies to diversify the voting rights is limited, Swedish regulation has been subject to public debate. In the essay, a comparison of Swedish law is made by studying the means for regulating the possibility to diversify voting rights in Anglo-American, Continental European and Nordic legal systems. The study shows that in both Anglo-American and Nordic legal systems (excluding Sweden), it is possible for companies to issue shares without voting rights. In contrast, differentiation of voting rights is generally prohibited in Continental European legal systems and thus, the Swedish regulation may be considered to share similarities with both groups of legal systems. The socio-economic study carried out in the essay assumes that there are different conflicts of interest between the stakeholders of the company, which may cause market failures and thus derogations from the conditions of a perfect market. The principal argument for a prohibition of shares with different voting rights is the risk for the minority of shareholders to be exploited by those owning controlling shareholdings in the company. The risk of exploitation is the same as a risk of exposure to externalised costs for decisions made by the controlling shareholder/s. However, the socio-economic analysis carried out shows that the market will consider the risk of exploitation and value the voting shares based on the risk of the investment. As a consequence of the above, in connection with the possible benefits to stakeholders and the wealth of society which may follow by issuing dual-class shares with different voting rights, a prohibition of shares with different vot- ing rights may not be considered justified. Rather, there may be grounds for expanding the ability of the limited company to diversify the voting rights between the classes and perhaps even to allow the issuance of no voting shares in Sweden

The spacing and selection effects impact on the wood production with Norway spruce

Trakthyggesbruket är det vanligaste skogsskötselsystemet i Sverige och innehåller fyra karakteristiska faser. De olika faserna är föryngringsfasen, ungskogsfasen, gallringsfasen och slutavverkningsfasen. Dessa påverkas av hur många plantor, planteringsförbandet, som planteras per hektar under föryngringsfasen. Det här medför att en skogsägare kan få en lyckad föryngring med få plantor, trots minimalt arbete och utgifter. Ett glesare förband ger en sämre urvalseffekt då det finns färre träd att välja mellan till det framtida slutbeståndet. Dock blir risken att ett glest bestånd drabbas av rotröta och stormfällning lägre. Denna studie inriktar sig på att undersöka hur planteringsförbanden med gran (Picea abies [L.] Karst) påverkar virkesproduktionen när alla planteringsförband har röjts och gallrats ned till samma stamantal per hektar. Data är hämtat från en av SLU:s försökytor (1026), sex mil nordväst om Umeå utanför Vindeln. Det är ett icke randomiserat försök uppdelat i tre block. Försöket består av fem kvadratiska planteringsförband (1x1m, 1,5x1,5m, 2x2m, 2,5x2,5m och 3x3m) uppdelade i tre avdelningar vardera, utspridda över de tre blocken. Försöket anlades 1965 för att undersöka planteringsförbandets och urvalseffektens påverkan på virkesproduktion och har reviderats fem gånger. Analyser utfördes på förbandens totala volymproduktion, övre höjd, medelhöjd och medeldiameter vid den senaste revisionen. Planteringsförband 1x1m producerade bäst, i alla kategorier, följt av planteringsförband 3x3m. Någon statistisk signifikans kunde dock inte finnas på planteringsförbandets och urvalets effekt på virkesproduktionen. Liknande försök med gran (Picea abies [L.] Karst) har visat att tätare planteringsförband leder till högre volymproduktion om de inte gallrats. Om gallring utförs i tätare förband kan glesare förband producera jämlikt med de ursprungligt tätare planteringsförbanden men kvaliteten i beståndet minskar.Clear felling is the most common alternative for the Swedish silviculture. This consists of four characteristic phases. The phases are; reafforestation phase, young forest phase, thinning phase and clear cutting phase. By planting different amount of plants, different spacing, during the reafforestation, the other phases will be affected. This entails that a forest owner could have a successful reafforestation with minimal work and expenditure invested. A sparsely spacing gives less selection effect because of fewer trees to choose for future stand. However it will have a lower risk of being affected by root rot and storm damage. This study aims to examine how different spacing with spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) affects timber production after being cleared and thinned to the same number of stems per hectares. The data has been collected from a trial area (1026) belonging to SLU, 60 kilometers northwest of Umeå outside Vindeln. It is a none randomized trial area consisting of three blocks with 5 squared spacing (1x1m, 1,5x1,5m, 2x2m, 2,5x2,5m and 3x3m) broken up into three different sections, spread out over the three blocks. The experiment was initiated in 1965 to study the effect of different spacing and the selection effect on wood production and has been revised five times. Data over volume production, over height, mean height and mean diameter from the last revision was analyzed. The 1x1m spacing was the best performing in all categories followed by spacing 3x3m. However, no statistical significance could be found by looking at the spacing effect on timber production. Similar studies with spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) have shown that closer spacing leads to a higher volume production if they are not thinned. If denser spacings are thinned, a sparsely spacing can produce equitable as the originally denser spacing but the quality of the stand will be lower

Comparison of the performances of survival analysis regression models for analysis of conception modes and risk of type-1 diabetes among 1985–2015 Swedish birth cohort

The goal is to examine the risk of conception mode-type-1 diabetes using different survival analysis modelling approaches and examine if there are differentials in the risk of type-1 diabetes between children from fresh and frozen-thawed embryo transfers. We aimed to compare the performances and fitness of different survival analysis regression models with the Cox proportional hazard (CPH) model used in an earlier study. The effect of conception modes and other prognostic factors on type-1 diabetes among children conceived either spontaneously or by assisted reproductive technology (ART) and its sub-groups was modelled in the earlier study. We used the information on all singleton children from the Swedish Medical Birth Register hosted by the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare, 1985 to 2015. The main explanatory variable was the mode of conception. We applied the CPH, parametric and flexible parametric survival regression (FPSR) models to the data at 5% significance level. Loglikelihood, Akaike and Bayesian information criteria were used to assess model fit. Among the 3,138,540 singletons, 47,938 (1.5%) were conceived through ART (11,211 frozen-thawed transfer and 36,727 fresh embryo transfer). In total, 18,118 (0.58%) of the children had type-1 diabetes, higher among (0.58%) those conceived spontaneously than the ART-conceived (0.42%). The median (Interquartile range (IQR)) age at onset of type-1 diabetes among spontaneously conceived children was 10 (14–6) years, 8(5–12) for ART, 6 (4–10) years for frozen-thawed embryo transfer and 9 (5–12) years for fresh embryo transfer. The estimates from the CPH, FPSR and parametric PH models are similar. There was no significant difference in the risk of type-1 diabetes among ART- and spontaneously conceived children; FPSR: (adjusted Hazard Ratio (aHR) = 1.070; 95% Confidence Interval (CI):0.929–1.232, p = 0.346) vs CPH: (aHR = 1.068; 95%CI: 0.927–1.230, p = 0.361). A sub-analysis showed that the adjusted hazard of type-1 diabetes was 37% (aHR = 1.368; 95%CI: 1.013–1.847, p = 0.041) higher among children from frozen-thawed embryo transfer than among children from spontaneous conception. The hazard of type-1 diabetes was higher among children whose mothers do not smoke (aHR = 1.296; 95%CI:1.240–1.354, p<0.001) and of diabetic mothers (aHR = 6.419; 95%CI:5.852–7.041, p<0.001) and fathers (aHR = 8.808; 95%CI:8.221–9.437, p<0.001). The estimates from the CPH, parametric models and the FPSR model were close. This is an indication that the models performed similarly and any of them can be used to model the data. We couldn’t establish that ART increases the risk of type-1 diabetes except when it is subdivided into its two subtypes. There is evidence of a greater risk of type-1 diabetes when conception is through frozen-thawed transfer.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

The effect of paternal factors on perinatal and paediatric outcomes : a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Maternal factors, including increasing childbearing age and various life-style factors, are associated with poorer short- and long-term outcomes for children, whereas knowledge of paternal parameters is limited. Recently, increasing paternal age has been associated with adverse obstetric outcomes, birth defects, autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia in children. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE: The aim of this systematic review is to describe the influence of paternal factors on adverse short- and long-term child outcomes. SEARCH METHODS: PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases up to January 2017 were searched. Paternal factors examined included paternal age and life-style factors such as body mass index (BMI), adiposity and cigarette smoking. The outcome variables assessed were short-term outcomes such as preterm birth, low birth weight, small for gestational age (SGA), stillbirth, birth defects and chromosomal anomalies. Long-term outcome variables included mortality, cancers, psychiatric diseases/disorders and metabolic diseases. The systematic review follows PRISMA guidelines. Relevant meta-analyses were performed. OUTCOMES: The search included 14 371 articles out of which 238 met the inclusion criteria, and 81 were included in quantitative synthesis (meta-analyses). Paternal age and paternal life-style factors have an association with adverse outcome in offspring. This is particularly evident for psychiatric disorders such as autism, autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia, but an association is also found with stillbirth, any birth defects, orofacial clefts and trisomy 21. Paternal height, but not BMI, is associated with birth weight in offspring while paternal BMI is associated with BMI, weight and/or body fat in childhood. Paternal smoking is found to be associated with an increase in SGA, birth defects such as congenital heart defects, and orofacial clefts, cancers, brain tumours and acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. These associations are significant although moderate in size, with most pooled estimates between 1.05 and 1.5, and none exceeding 2.0. WIDER IMPLICATIONS: Although the increased risks of adverse outcome in offspring associated with paternal factors and identified in this report represent serious health effects, the magnitude of these effects seems modest.Peer reviewe

Microbial and human transcriptome in vaginal fluid at midgestation: Association with spontaneous preterm delivery

Background Intrauterine infection and inflammation caused by microbial transfer from the vagina are believed to be important factors causing spontaneous preterm delivery (PTD). Multiple studies have examined the relationship between the cervicovaginal microbiome and spontaneous PTD with divergent results. Most studies have applied a DNA-based assessment, providing information on the microbial composition but not transcriptional activity. A transcriptomic approach was applied to investigate differences in the active vaginal microbiome and human transcriptome at midgestation between women delivering spontaneously preterm versus those delivering at term. Methods Vaginal swabs were collected in women with a singleton pregnancy at 18 + 0 to 20 + 6 gestational weeks. For each case of spontaneous PTD (delivery &lt;37 + 0 weeks) two term controls were randomized (39 + 0 to 40 + 6 weeks). Vaginal specimens were subject to sequencing of both human and microbial RNA. Microbial reads were taxonomically classified using Kraken2 and RefSeq as a reference. Statistical analyses were performed using DESeq2. GSEA and HUMAnN3 were used for pathway analyses. Results We found 17 human genes to be differentially expressed (false discovery rate, FDR &lt; 0.05) in the preterm group (n = 48) compared to the term group (n = 96). Gene expression of kallikrein-2 (KLK2), KLK3 and four isoforms of metallothioneins 1 (MT1s) was higher in the preterm group (FDR &lt; 0.05). We found 11 individual bacterial species to be differentially expressed (FDR &lt; 0.05), most with a low occurrence. No statistically significant differences in bacterial load, diversity or microbial community state types were found between the groups. Conclusions In our mainly white population, primarily bacterial species of low occurrence were differentially expressed at midgestation in women who delivered preterm versus at term. However, the expression of specific human transcripts including KLK2, KLK3 and several isoforms of MT1s was higher in preterm cases. This is of interest, because these genes may be involved in critical inflammatory pathways associated with spontaneous PTD

Effect of maternal age on maternal and neonatal outcomes after assisted reproductive technology

Objective: To compare the effect of maternal age on assisted reproductive technology (ART) and spontaneous conception (SC) pregnancies regarding maternal and neonatal complications. Design: Nordic retrospective population-based cohort study. Data from national ART registries were cross-linked with national medical birth registries. Setting: Not applicable. Patient(s): A total of 300,085 singleton deliveries: 39,919 after ART and 260,166 after SC. Intervention(s): None. Main Outcome Measure(s): Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HDP), placenta previa, cesarean delivery, preterm birth (PTB; = 28 weeks). Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated. Associations between maternal age and outcomes were analyzed. Result(s): The risk of placenta previa (AOR 4.11-6.05), cesarean delivery (AOR 1.18-1.50), PTB (AOR 1.23-2.19), and LBW (AOR 1.44-2.35) was significantly higher in ART than in SC pregnancies for most maternal ages. In both ART and SC pregnancies, the risk of HDP, placenta previa, cesarean delivery, PTB, LBW, and SGA changed significantly with age. The AORs for adverse neonatal outcomes at advanced maternal age (>35 years) showed a greater increase in SC than in ART. The change in risk with age did not differ between ART and SC for maternal outcomes at advanced maternal age. Conclusion(s): Having singleton conceptions after ART results in higher maternal and neonatal outcome risks overall, but the impact of age seems to be more pronounced in couples conceiving spontaneously. (C) 2016 by American Society for Reproductive Medicine.Peer reviewe

Two tales of cardiovascular risks – middle-aged women living in Sweden and Scotland – a cross-sectional comparative study.

OBJECTIVES: To compare cardiovascular risk factors as well as rates of cardiovascular diseases in middle-aged women from urban areas in Scotland and Sweden. DESIGN: Comparative cross-sectional study. SETTING: Data from the general population in urban areas of Scotland and the general population in two major Swedish cities in southeast Sweden, south of Stockholm. PARTICIPANTS: Comparable data of middle-aged women (40-65 years) from the Scottish Health Survey (n=6250) and the Swedish QWIN study (n=741) were merged together into a new dataset (n=6991 participants). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: We compared middle-aged women in urban areas in Sweden and Scotland regarding risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD), CVD diagnosis, anthropometrics, psychological distress and lifestyle. RESULTS: In almost all measurements, there were significant differences between the countries, favouring the Swedish women. Scottish women demonstrated a higher frequency of alcohol consumption, smoking, obesity, low vegetable consumption, a sedentary lifestyle and also more psychological distress. For doctor-diagnosed coronary heart disease, there were also significant differences, with a higher prevalence among the Scottish women. CONCLUSIONS: This is one of the first studies that clearly shows that Scottish middle-aged women are particularly affected by a worse profile of CVD risks. The profound differences in CVD risk and outcome frequency in the two populations are likely to have arisen from differences in the two groups of women's social, cultural, political and economic environments.Funding agencies: Swedish Heart and Lung Association [E136-15/E106/13]; Clinic ALF funds, Region Ostergotland, Sweden [LiO-446241]; Research and PhD studies Committee (FUN), Linkoping University, Sweden [LiU-2014-020251]</p

Puberty disorders among ART-conceived singletons : a Nordic register study from the CoNARTaS group

STUDY QUESTION Do ART-conceived children have an increased risk for puberty disorders? SUMMARY ANSWER Both ART-conceived boys and girls had a higher risk of puberty disorders; early puberty was more common among girls and late puberty among boys. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Some physiological differences in growth and metabolism have been reported for ART-conceived children compared to non-ART-conceived children. Knowledge on pubertal development and disorders in ART-conceived children is limited. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION A register-based cohort study was carried out including data from 1985 to 2015. The Committee of Nordic Assisted Reproductive Technology and Safety (CoNARTaS) study population consists of all live and stillborn children, as well as their mothers, registered in the Medical Birth Registers during the study period in Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Norway. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS A total of 122 321 ART-conceived singletons and 6 576 410 non-ART singletons born in Denmark (1994-2014), Finland (1990-2014), Norway (2002-2015) and Sweden (1985-2015) were included. Puberty disorders were defined using International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)-9/ICD-10 codes and classified in the following groups: late puberty (6268/E30.0), early puberty (2591 and 2958/E30.1 and E30.8) and unspecified disorders (V212 and V579/E30.9 and Z00.3 as well as Z51.80 for Finland). The results in Cox regression were adjusted for maternal age, parity, smoking, gestational diabetes, chronic hypertension, hypertensive disorders during pregnancy and country, and further for either gestational age, birthweight, small for gestational age or large for gestational age. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE There were 37 869 children with diagnoses related to puberty disorders, and 603 of them were born after ART. ART-conceived children had higher risks for early (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.45, 95% CI: 1.29-1.64) and late puberty (aHR 1.47, 95% CI: 1.21-1.77). Girls had more diagnoses related to early puberty (aHR 1.46, 95% CI: 1.29-1.66) and boys with late puberty (aHR 1.55, 95% CI: 1.24-1.95). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION Using reported puberty disorders with ICD codes in health care registers might vary, which may affect the numbers of cases found in the registers. Register data may give an underestimation both among ART and non-ART-conceived children, especially among non-ART children, who may not be as carefully followed as ART-conceived children. Adjustment for causes and duration of infertility, mothers' own puberty characteristics and BMI, as well as children's BMI, was not possible because data were not available or data were missing for the early years. It was also not possible to compare ART to non-ART siblings or to study the pubertal disorders by cause of subfertility owing to a small number of discordant sibling pairs and a large proportion of missing data on cause of subfertility. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS This large, register-based study suggests that ART-conceived children have a higher risk for puberty disorders. However, the mechanisms of infertility and pubertal onset are complex, and ART is a rapidly advancing field with various treatment options. Studying the pubertal disorders of ART-conceived offspring is a continuing challenge. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) This work was supported by the Nordic Trial Alliance: a pilot project jointly funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers and NordForsk (71450), the Central Norway Regional Health Authorities (46045000), the Nordic Federation of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (NF13041, NF15058, NF16026 and NF17043), the Interreg oresund-Kattegat-Skagerrak European Regional Development Fund (ReproUnion project), the Research Council of Norway's Centre of Excellence funding scheme (262700), the Swedish state under the agreement between the Swedish government and the county councils, the ALF-agreement (ALFGBG-70940) and FLUX Consortium 'Family Formation in Flux-Causes, Consequences and Possible Futures', funded by the Strategic Research Council, Academy of Finland (DEMOGRAPHY 345130). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.Peer reviewe