A poorly mixed mantle transition zone and its thermal state inferred from seismic waves

The abrupt changes in mineralogical properties across the Earth’s mantle transition zone substantially impact convection and thermochemical fluxes between the upper and lower mantle. While the 410-km discontinuity at the top of the mantle transition zone is detected with all types of seismic waves, the 660-km boundary is mostly invisible to underside P-wave reflections (P660P). The cause for this observation is debated. The dissociation of ringwoodite and garnet into lower-mantle minerals both contribute to the ‘660’ visibility; only the garnet reaction favours material exchanges across the discontinuity. Here, we combine large datasets of SS and PP precursors, mineralogical modelling and data-mining techniques to obtain a global thermal map of the mantle transition zone, and explain the lack of P660P visibility. We find that its prevalent absence requires a chemically unequilibrated mantle, and its visibility in few locations is associated with potential temperatures greater than 1,800 K. Such temperatures occur in approximately 0.6% of Earth, indicating that the 660 is dominated by ringwoodite decomposition, which tends to impede mantle flow. We find broad regions with elevated temperatures beneath the Pacific surrounded by major volcanic hotspots, indicating plume retention and ponding of hot materials in the mantle transition zone

Multiple transition zone seismic discontinuities and low velocity layers below western United States

With P-to-S converted waves recorded at seismic stations of the U.S. Transportable Array, we image the fine structure of upper mantle and transition zone (TZ) beneath the western U.S. We map the topographies of seismic discontinuities by stacking data by common conversion points along profiles. Systematic depth and amplitude measurements are performed not only for the well-known “410” and “660” interfaces but also for minor seismic discontinuities identified around 350, 590, and 630 km depths. The amplitude of conversion suggests shear wave velocity (Vs) increase by 4% at the 410 and the 660. The observed 660 velocity contrast is smaller than expected from the 6% in IASP91 but consistent with a pyrolitic model of mantle composition. The Gorda plate, subducted under northern California, is tracked to the TZ where it seems to flatten and induce uplift of the 410 under northern Nevada. Maps of 410/660 amplitude/topography reveal that the TZ is anomalous beneath the geographical borders of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, with (1) a thickened TZ, (2) a sharp change in depth of the 660, (3) a reduced 410 conversion amplitude in the North, and (4) a positive “630” discontinuity. Such anomalous structure might be inherited from the past history of plate subduction/accretion. A thinned TZ under the Yellowstone suggests higher-than-average temperatures, perhaps due to a deep thermal plume. Both the “350” and the “590” negative discontinuities extend over very large areas. They might be related either to an increased water content in the TZ, a significant amount of oceanic material accumulated through the past 100 Myr, or both.National Science Foundation (U.S.) (VICI grant NWO:VICI865.03.007

Evidence of Volatile-Induced Melting in the Northeast Asian Upper Mantle

A seismic low velocity layer (LVL) above the mantle transition zone (MTZ), often thought to be caused by volatile-induced melting, can significantly modulate planetary volatile cycles. In this work, we show that an LVL observed beneath northeast Asia is characterized by small, 0.8 (Formula presented.) 0.5 vol%, average degrees of partial melting. Seismically derived P-T conditions of the LVL indicate that slab-derived (Formula presented.), possibly combined with small amounts of (Formula presented.) O, is necessary to induce melting. Modeling the reactive infiltration instability of the melt in a stationary mantle above a stalled slab, we demonstrate that the volatile-rich melt slowly rises above the stalled slab in the MTZ, with percolation velocities of 200–500 (Formula presented.) m/yr. The melt remains stable within the LVL for this geologically significant period of time, potentially transferring up to 52 Mt/yr of (Formula presented.) from the subducting slab to the mantle for an LVL similar in areal extent ((Formula presented.)) to the northeast Asian LVL. Reaction between the melt channels and the LVL mantle precipitates up to 200 ppmw solid C in localized zones. Using the inferred small melt volume fraction to model trace element abundances and isotopic signatures, we show that interaction between this melt and the surrounding mantle can over the long-term produce rocks bearing a HIMU like geochemical signature

New determinations of gamma-ray line intensities of the Ep = 550 keV and Ep = 1747 keV resonances of the 13-C(p,gamma)14-N reaction

Gamma-ray angular distributions for the resonances at Ep = 550 keV and 1747 keV of the radiative capture reaction 13-C(p,g)14-N have been measured, using intense proton beams on isotopically pure 13-C targets. Relative intensities for the strongest transitions were extracted with an accuracy of typically five per cent, making these resonances new useful gamma-ray standards for efficiency calibration in the energy range Egamma = 1.6 to 9 MeV.Comment: 17 pages, 6 figures, Nuclear Instruments and Methods, Sec. A, accepte

Stochastic Inversion of P-to-S Converted Waves for Mantle Composition and Thermal Structure: Methodology and Application

We present a new methodology for inverting P‐to‐S receiver function (RF) waveforms directly for mantle temperature and composition. This is achieved by interfacing the geophysical inversion with self‐consistent mineral phase equilibria calculations from which rock mineralogy and its elastic properties are predicted as a function of pressure, temperature, and bulk composition. This approach anchors temperatures, composition, seismic properties, and discontinuities that are in mineral physics data, while permitting the simultaneous use of geophysical inverse methods to optimize models of seismic properties to match RF waveforms. Resultant estimates of transition zone (TZ) topography and volumetric seismic velocities are independent of tomographic models usually required for correcting for upper mantle structure. We considered two end‐member compositional models: the equilibrated equilibrium assemblage (EA) and the disequilibrated mechanical mixture (MM) models. Thermal variations were found to influence arrival times of computed RF waveforms, whereas compositional variations affected amplitudes of waves converted at the TZ discontinuities. The robustness of the inversion strategy was tested by performing a set of synthetic inversions in which crustal structure was assumed both fixed and variable. These tests indicate that unaccounted‐for crustal structure strongly affects the retrieval of mantle properties, calling for a two‐step strategy presented herein to simultaneously recover both crustal and mantle parameters. As a proof of concept, the methodology is applied to data from two stations located in the Siberian and East European continental platforms.This work was supported by a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF project 200021_159907). B. T. was funded by a Délégation CNRS and Congé pour Recherches et Conversion Thématique from the Université de Lyon to visit the Research School of Earth Sciences (RSES), The Australian National University (ANU). B. T. has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement 79382

Autocorrelation of the Ground Vibrations Recorded by the SEIS-InSight Seismometer on Mars

Since early February 2019, the SEIS (Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure) seismometer deployed at the surface of Mars in the framework of the InSight mission has been continuously recording the ground motion at Elysium Planitia. In this study, we take advantage of this exceptional data set to put constraints on the crustal properties of Mars using seismic interferometry (SI). To carry out this task, we first examine the continuous records from the very broadband seismometer. Several deterministic sources of environmental noise are identified and specific preprocessing strategies are presented to mitigate their influence. Applying the principles of SI to the single-station configuration of InSight, we compute, for each Sol and each hour of the martian day, the diagonal elements of the time-domain correlation tensor of random ambient vibrations recorded by SEIS. A similar computation is performed on the diffuse waveforms generated by more than a hundred Marsquakes. A careful signal-to-noise ratio analysis and an inter-comparison between the two datasets suggest that the results from SI are most reliable in a narrow frequency band around 2.4 Hz, where an amplification of both ambient vibrations and seismic events is observed. The average autocorrelation functions (ACFs) contain well identifiable seismic arrivals, that are very consistent between the two datasets. Interpreting the vertical and horizontal ACFs as, respectively, the P- and S- seismic reflectivity below InSight, we propose a simple stratified velocity model of the crust, which is mostly compatible with previous results from receiver function analysis. Our results are discussed and compared to recent works from the literature.This study is InSight contribution number 164. The authors acknowledge both “Université Fédérale de Toulouse Midi Pyrénées” and the “Région Occitanie” for funding the PhD grant of Nicolas Compaire. The French authors acknowledge the French Space Agency CNES and ANR (ANR-14-CE36-0012-02 and ANR-19-CE31-0008-08) for funding the InSight Science analysis

Hydrous upwelling across the mantle transition zone beneath the Afar Triple Junction

The mechanisms that drive the upwelling of chemical heterogeneity from the lower to upper mantle (e.g., thermal versus compositional buoyancy) are key to our understanding of whole mantle con- vective processes. We address these issues through a receiver function study on new seismic data from recent deployments located on the Afar Triple Junction, a location associated with deep mantle upwelling. The detailed images of upper mantle and mantle transition zone structure illuminate features that give insights into the nature of upwelling from the deep Earth. A seismic low-velocity layer directly above the mantle transition zone, interpreted as a stable melt layer, along with a prominent 520 km discontinuity sug- gest the presence of a hydrous upwelling. A relatively uniform transition zone thickness across the region suggests a weak thermal anomaly (<100 K) may be present and that upwelling must be at least partly driven by compositional buoyancy. The results suggest that the lower mantle is a source of volatile rich, chemically distinct upwellings that influence the structure of the upper mantle, and potentially the chemis- try of surface lavas

INTEGRAL/SPI ground calibration

Three calibration campaigns of the spectrometer SPI have been performed before launch in order to determine the instrument characteristics, such as the effective detection area, the spectral resolution and the angular resolution. Absolute determination of the effective area has been obtained from simulations and measurements. At 1 MeV, the effective area is 65 cm^2 for a point source on the optical axis, the spectral resolution ~2.3 keV. The angular resolution is better than 2.5 deg and the source separation capability about 1 deg. Some temperature dependant parameters will require permanent in-flight calibration.Comment: 9 pages, 12 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in A&AL (INTEGRAL Special issue

Seismic Constraints on the Thickness and Structure of the Martian Crust from InSight

NASA¿s InSight mission [1] has for the first time placed a very broad-band seismometer on the surface of Mars. The Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) [2] has been collecting continuous data since early February 2019. The main focus of InSight is to enhance our understanding of the internal structure and dynamics of Mars, which includes the goal to better constrain the crustal thickness of the planet [3]. Knowing the present-day crustal thickness of Mars has important implications for its thermal evolution [4] as well as for the partitioning of silicates and heat-producing elements between the different layers of Mars. Current estimates for the crustal thickness of Mars are based on modeling the relationship between topography and gravity [5,6], but these studies rely on different assumptions, e.g. on the density of the crust and upper mantle, or the bulk silicate composition of the planet and the crust. The resulting values for the average crustal thickness differ by more than 100%, from 30 km to more than 100 km [7]. New independent constraints from InSight will be based on seismically determining the crustal thickness at the landing site. This single firm measurement of crustal thickness at one point on the planet will allow to constrain both the average crustal thickness of Mars as well as thickness variations across the planet when combined with constraints from gravity and topography [8]. Here we describe the determination of the crustal structure and thickness at the InSight landing site based on seismic receiver functions for three marsquakes compared with autocorrelations of InSight data [9].We acknowledge NASA, CNES, partner agencies and institutions (UKSA, SSO,DLR, JPL, IPGP-CNRS, ETHZ, IC, MPS-MPG) and the operators of JPL, SISMOC, MSDS, IRIS-DMC and PDS for providing SEED SEIS data. InSight data is archived in the PDS, and a full list of archives in the Geosciences, Atmospheres, and Imaging nodes is at https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/insight/. This work was partially carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. ©2021, California Institute of Technology. Government sponsorship acknowledge

Live imaging of SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice reveals neutralizing antibodies require Fc function for optimal efficacy

Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are effective in treating COVID-19 but the mechanism of immune protection is not fully understood. Here, we applied live bioluminescence imaging (BLI) to monitor the real-time effects of NAb treatment in prophylaxis and therapy of K18-hACE2 mice intranasally infected with SARS-CoV-2-nanoluciferase. We visualized sequential spread of virus from the nasal cavity to the lungs followed by systemic spread to various organs including the brain, culminating in death. Highly potent NAbs from a COVID-19 convalescent subject prevented, and also effectively resolved, established infection when administered within three days of infection. In addition to direct neutralization, in vivo efficacy required Fc effector functions of NAbs, with contributions from monocytes, neutrophils and natural killer cells, to dampen inflammatory responses and limit immunopathology. Thus, our study highlights the requirement of both Fab and Fc effector functions for an optimal in vivo efficacy afforded by NAbs against SARS-CoV-2