The receptión of positivism in the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios

La denominada «Edad de Plata» de la ciencia española está indisolublemente ligada a la Junta para Ampliación de Estudios (JAE). La producción científica de los integrantes de esta institución, una élite privilegiada, acercó a España a la vanguardia de la ciencia del momento. Participantes activos en los debates y foros internacionales, el intercambio con la cultura y la ciencia de otros países propició la apertura, no sólo a la ciencia, sino a las corrientes de pensamiento que circulaban por Europa y Norteamérica, incluidas las filosóficas. Así, el objetivo del presente trabajo es mostrar cómo la apertura y el intercambio en esos foros no sólo se tradujeron en el avance de la ciencia, sino en la recepción (introducción y circulación) de dichas corrientes de pensamiento filosófico por parte de los mismos científicos. Las preocupaciones epistemológicas y metodológicas, motivadas por el interés en hacer una ciencia con «métodos modernos», formaron parte del escenario en que se gestó y desarrolló el esfuerzo por alcanzar los estándares internacionales modernos en la producción de ciencia en España.The so-called «Silver Age» of Spanish science is inextricably linked to the JAE. The scientific production of the members of this institution, a privileged elite, came to Spain at the forefront of the science of time. Active participants in discussions and forums, exchange of culture and science in other countries led to the opening, not only to science but to the currents of thought circulating in Europe and North America, including the philosophical. Thus, the objective of this paper is to show how openness and sharing in these forums not only resulted in the advancement of science but at the reception (introduction and circulation) of these currents of philosophical thought by scientists themselves. Epistemological and methodological concerns, motivated by interest in to do science with «modern methods» were part of the stage that was conceived and developed the effort to reach international standards in the production of modern science in Spain

Explicación, experimentos y tecnología

La primera parte se centra en el concepto de explicación y analiza su desarrollo interno a partir del modelo hempeliano de explicación. El interés de la revisión de los desarrollos y modelos considerados (Salmón, Kitcher, Cartwright, van Fraassen y Achinstein) radica en su consideración como variaciones de énfasis que remiten a teorizaciones subyacentes en sus propuestas acerca de la explicación científica. Así, los cambios de acento, bien sobre la estructura lógica de las explicaciones canónicas bien sobre la estructura causal de mundo a que se refieren o sobre los diversos aspectos pragmáticos de las interacciones explicativas, revelan diferencias más profundas. La segunda parte recoge dos constataciones básicas; la diferencia entre producción y producto y la recuperación de los sujetos de la ciencia y de la constitución interactiva de sus prácticas científicas -textuales, experimentales y tecnológicas. Y propone dos funciones complementarais de los estudios guiados por la Retórica de la ciencia: una función crítica o de desenmascaramiento del discurso científico mismo y una función positiva de avance y planteamiento de nuevas propuestas comprensivas e integradoras de todos los aspectos relevantes conjugados en la actividad científica. La función crítica tiene dos propósitos fundamentales: poner de manifiesto la naturaleza constructiva del documento científico que hace de su resultado un conocimiento público y acreditado y desvelar y deconstruir la imagen tradicional y oficial del ciencia, en concreto, su contingencia frente a la pretensión de estar determinada por la naturaleza misma de las cosas y verse reflejada en el discurso; su inadecuación al ofrecer una imagen parcial, idealizada y sesgada de la ciencia que ignora u oculta todos los aspectos pragmáticos, sociohistóricos y contextuales que la caracterizan como actividad humana; y poner de manifiesto la necesidad de un cambio profundo y radical de esta imagen. En este sentido, se proponen dos marcos conjuntados: uno más general, integrador de los diversos componentes de la racionalidad cognitiva y social de las actividades científicas como formas de interacción entre sujetos concretos de conocimiento y de actuación con y sobre sus instrumentos y objetos. Este marco es el proporcionado por los estudios de Helen Longino. El otro, más específico del discurso científico, es el proporcionado por la retórica de la ciencia de Marcelo Pera

Simone de Beauvoir: dos aproximaciones

Este artículo presenta dos aproximaciones a Simone de Beauvoir, una a través de su autobiografía y otra a través de El segundo sexo, intentando mostrar cómo ambas, a pesar de tratarse de diferentes registros, pueden articularse en una unidad: la derivada de participar en un mismo proyecto.This article approaches Simon de Beauvoir from her autobiography and her most famous work, The second sex, in an effort to elucidate how both, albeit from different registers, can be perceived as a unified vision

Mary Fairfax Somerville: lo científico sublime

La historia de las mujeres de ciencia cuenta ya con cierta tradición. Desde los estudios biográficos iniciales con perspectiva de género hasta los actuales que inciden en el análisis contextual de las aportaciones de las mujeres de ciencia, las imágenes que de ellas tienen sus coetáneos y las propias auto-representaciones, conforman complejos tapices de tópicos relacionados que contribuyen a la comprensión de las contribuciones de las mujeres de ciencia. El caso de Mary Somerville ilustra estos aspectos e introduce uno más de especial relevancia: el carácter de su escritura científica.When referring to the history of women in science, we may speak of the tradition that runs from the initial biographical studies from the gender perspective to the current ones that deal with the contextual analysis of scientist women’s contributions. Female scientist images built both by themselves and by those contemporary with them conform complex tapestries of related topics. These foster the understanding of the contributions of women to science. The case of Mary Somerville illustrates these aspects and simultaneously enriches them by the added relevance attributed to her scientific writing

Izaña Atmospheric Research Center. Activity Report 2019-2020

Editors: Emilio Cuevas, Celia Milford and Oksana Tarasova.[EN]The Izaña Atmospheric Research Center (IARC), which is part of the State Meteorological Agency of Spain (AEMET), is a site of excellence in atmospheric science. It manages four observatories in Tenerife including the high altitude Izaña Atmospheric Observatory. The Izaña Atmospheric Observatory was inaugurated in 1916 and since that date has carried out uninterrupted meteorological and climatological observations, contributing towards a unique 100-year record in 2016. This reports are a summary of the many activities at the Izaña Atmospheric Research Center to the broader community. The combination of operational activities, research and development in state-of-the-art measurement techniques, calibration and validation and international cooperation encompass the vision of WMO to provide world leadership in expertise and international cooperation in weather, climate, hydrology and related environmental issues.[ES]El Centro de Investigación Atmosférica de Izaña (CIAI), que forma parte de la Agencia Estatal de Meteorología de España (AEMET), representa un centro de excelencia en ciencias atmosféricas. Gestiona cuatro observatorios en Tenerife, incluido el Observatorio de Izaña de gran altitud, inaugurado en 1916 y que desde entonces ha realizado observaciones meteorológicas y climatológicas ininterrumpidas y se ha convertido en una estación centenaria de la OMM. Estos informes resumen las múltiples actividades llevadas a cabo por el Centro de Investigación Atmosférica de Izaña. El liderazgo del Centro en materia de investigación y desarrollo con respecto a las técnicas de medición, calibración y validación de última generación, así como la cooperación internacional, le han otorgado una reputación sobresaliente en lo que se refiere al tiempo, el clima, la hidrología y otros temas ambientales afines

Treatment with tocilizumab or corticosteroids for COVID-19 patients with hyperinflammatory state: a multicentre cohort study (SAM-COVID-19)

Objectives: The objective of this study was to estimate the association between tocilizumab or corticosteroids and the risk of intubation or death in patients with coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) with a hyperinflammatory state according to clinical and laboratory parameters. Methods: A cohort study was performed in 60 Spanish hospitals including 778 patients with COVID-19 and clinical and laboratory data indicative of a hyperinflammatory state. Treatment was mainly with tocilizumab, an intermediate-high dose of corticosteroids (IHDC), a pulse dose of corticosteroids (PDC), combination therapy, or no treatment. Primary outcome was intubation or death; follow-up was 21 days. Propensity score-adjusted estimations using Cox regression (logistic regression if needed) were calculated. Propensity scores were used as confounders, matching variables and for the inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTWs). Results: In all, 88, 117, 78 and 151 patients treated with tocilizumab, IHDC, PDC, and combination therapy, respectively, were compared with 344 untreated patients. The primary endpoint occurred in 10 (11.4%), 27 (23.1%), 12 (15.4%), 40 (25.6%) and 69 (21.1%), respectively. The IPTW-based hazard ratios (odds ratio for combination therapy) for the primary endpoint were 0.32 (95%CI 0.22-0.47; p < 0.001) for tocilizumab, 0.82 (0.71-1.30; p 0.82) for IHDC, 0.61 (0.43-0.86; p 0.006) for PDC, and 1.17 (0.86-1.58; p 0.30) for combination therapy. Other applications of the propensity score provided similar results, but were not significant for PDC. Tocilizumab was also associated with lower hazard of death alone in IPTW analysis (0.07; 0.02-0.17; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Tocilizumab might be useful in COVID-19 patients with a hyperinflammatory state and should be prioritized for randomized trials in this situatio

Canagliflozin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy

BACKGROUND Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of kidney failure worldwide, but few effective long-term treatments are available. In cardiovascular trials of inhibitors of sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2), exploratory results have suggested that such drugs may improve renal outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS In this double-blind, randomized trial, we assigned patients with type 2 diabetes and albuminuric chronic kidney disease to receive canagliflozin, an oral SGLT2 inhibitor, at a dose of 100 mg daily or placebo. All the patients had an estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 30 to &lt;90 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 of body-surface area and albuminuria (ratio of albumin [mg] to creatinine [g], &gt;300 to 5000) and were treated with renin–angiotensin system blockade. The primary outcome was a composite of end-stage kidney disease (dialysis, transplantation, or a sustained estimated GFR of &lt;15 ml per minute per 1.73 m2), a doubling of the serum creatinine level, or death from renal or cardiovascular causes. Prespecified secondary outcomes were tested hierarchically. RESULTS The trial was stopped early after a planned interim analysis on the recommendation of the data and safety monitoring committee. At that time, 4401 patients had undergone randomization, with a median follow-up of 2.62 years. The relative risk of the primary outcome was 30% lower in the canagliflozin group than in the placebo group, with event rates of 43.2 and 61.2 per 1000 patient-years, respectively (hazard ratio, 0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.59 to 0.82; P=0.00001). The relative risk of the renal-specific composite of end-stage kidney disease, a doubling of the creatinine level, or death from renal causes was lower by 34% (hazard ratio, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.53 to 0.81; P&lt;0.001), and the relative risk of end-stage kidney disease was lower by 32% (hazard ratio, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.54 to 0.86; P=0.002). The canagliflozin group also had a lower risk of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or stroke (hazard ratio, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.67 to 0.95; P=0.01) and hospitalization for heart failure (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.80; P&lt;0.001). There were no significant differences in rates of amputation or fracture. CONCLUSIONS In patients with type 2 diabetes and kidney disease, the risk of kidney failure and cardiovascular events was lower in the canagliflozin group than in the placebo group at a median follow-up of 2.62 years

Impact of COVID-19 on cardiovascular testing in the United States versus the rest of the world

Objectives: This study sought to quantify and compare the decline in volumes of cardiovascular procedures between the United States and non-US institutions during the early phase of the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the care of many non-COVID-19 illnesses. Reductions in diagnostic cardiovascular testing around the world have led to concerns over the implications of reduced testing for cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality. Methods: Data were submitted to the INCAPS-COVID (International Atomic Energy Agency Non-Invasive Cardiology Protocols Study of COVID-19), a multinational registry comprising 909 institutions in 108 countries (including 155 facilities in 40 U.S. states), assessing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on volumes of diagnostic cardiovascular procedures. Data were obtained for April 2020 and compared with volumes of baseline procedures from March 2019. We compared laboratory characteristics, practices, and procedure volumes between U.S. and non-U.S. facilities and between U.S. geographic regions and identified factors associated with volume reduction in the United States. Results: Reductions in the volumes of procedures in the United States were similar to those in non-U.S. facilities (68% vs. 63%, respectively; p = 0.237), although U.S. facilities reported greater reductions in invasive coronary angiography (69% vs. 53%, respectively; p < 0.001). Significantly more U.S. facilities reported increased use of telehealth and patient screening measures than non-U.S. facilities, such as temperature checks, symptom screenings, and COVID-19 testing. Reductions in volumes of procedures differed between U.S. regions, with larger declines observed in the Northeast (76%) and Midwest (74%) than in the South (62%) and West (44%). Prevalence of COVID-19, staff redeployments, outpatient centers, and urban centers were associated with greater reductions in volume in U.S. facilities in a multivariable analysis. Conclusions: We observed marked reductions in U.S. cardiovascular testing in the early phase of the pandemic and significant variability between U.S. regions. The association between reductions of volumes and COVID-19 prevalence in the United States highlighted the need for proactive efforts to maintain access to cardiovascular testing in areas most affected by outbreaks of COVID-19 infection

Robust estimation of bacterial cell count from optical density

Optical density (OD) is widely used to estimate the density of cells in liquid culture, but cannot be compared between instruments without a standardized calibration protocol and is challenging to relate to actual cell count. We address this with an interlaboratory study comparing three simple, low-cost, and highly accessible OD calibration protocols across 244 laboratories, applied to eight strains of constitutive GFP-expressing E. coli. Based on our results, we recommend calibrating OD to estimated cell count using serial dilution of silica microspheres, which produces highly precise calibration (95.5% of residuals &lt;1.2-fold), is easily assessed for quality control, also assesses instrument effective linear range, and can be combined with fluorescence calibration to obtain units of Molecules of Equivalent Fluorescein (MEFL) per cell, allowing direct comparison and data fusion with flow cytometry measurements: in our study, fluorescence per cell measurements showed only a 1.07-fold mean difference between plate reader and flow cytometry data

Prevalence and genotype distribution of cervical human papilomavirus infection in the pre-vaccination era: a population-based study in the Canary Islands

Objective National Spanish studies show that prevalence of cervical human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in the female population is increasingly frequent, with an overall estimate of 14% in women aged 18–65 years. The objective of this study is to know the prevalence and distribution of HPV types in the female population of the Canary Islands prior to the introduction of HPV vaccines and to investigate the associated clinical and sociodemographic factors.Methods Based on the Primary Health Care database, a sample of adult women (aged 18–65 years) of Gran Canaria (GC) and Tenerife (TF) stratified into nine age groups was carried out between 2002 and 2007. Women were contacted by postal letter and telephone call and were visited in their primary care centre. A clinical-epidemiological survey was completed and cervical samples were taken for cytological study and HPV detection. HPV prevalence and its 95% CI were estimated, and multivariate analyses were performed using logistic regression to identify factors associated with the infection.Results 6010 women participated in the study, 3847 from GC and 2163 from TF. The overall prevalence of HPV infection was 13.6% (CI 12.8%–14.5%) and 11.1% (CI 10.3%–11.9%) for high-risk types. The most frequent HPV type was 16 followed by types 51, 53, 31, 42 and 59. HPV types included in the nonavalent vaccine were detected in 54.1% of infected women. Factors associated with an increased risk of infection were: young ages (18–29 years), the number of sexual partners throughout life, not being married, being a smoker, and having had previous cervical lesions or genital warts.Conclusions It is confirmed that prevalence of HPV infection in the female population of the Canary Islands is high, but similar to that of Spain, HPV 16 being the most frequent genotype. The determinants of infection are consistent with those of other populations