Does Pastoralists' Participation in the Management of National Parks in Northern Norway Contribute to Adaptive Governance?

Norwegian protected areas have historically been managed by central, expertise bureaucracy; however, a governance change in 2010 decentralized and delegated the right to manage protected areas to locally elected politicians and elected Sámi representatives in newly established National Park Boards. We explore how this new governance change affects adaptive capacity within the reindeer industry, as the reindeer herders are now participating with other users in decision-making processes related to large tracts of protected areas in which they have pasture access. Aspects within adaptive capacity and resilience thinking are useful as complementary dimensions to a social-ecological system framework (Ostrom 2007) in exploring the dynamics of complex adaptive social-ecological systems. The National Park Board provides a novel example of adaptive governance that can foster resilient livelihoods for various groups of actors that depend on protected areas. Data for this paper were gathered primarily through observation in National Park Board meetings, focus groups, and qualitative interviews with reindeer herders and other key stakeholders. We have identified certain aspects of the national park governance that may serve as sources of resilience and adaptive capacity for the natural system and pastoral people that rely on using these areas. The regional National Park Board is as such a critical mechanism that provides an action arena for participation and conflict resolution. However, desired outcomes such as coproduction of knowledge, social learning, and increased adaptive capacity within reindeer husbandry have not been actualized at this time. The challenge with limited scope of action in the National Park Board and a mismatch between what is important for the herders and what is addressed in the National Park Board become important for the success of this management model

Large predators and their impact on reindeer husbandry

Several large predators (wolf, lynx, wolverine, brown bear and eagle) are present within the Fennoscandian reindeer herding area, where reindeer are often their main prey. After being more or less eradicated during the 1800s and early 1900s, predators were gradually protected leading to the recovery of all species. Growing populations of predators evidently lead to increased damage to reindeer and reindeer husbandry. In Fennoscandia, the annual loss of reindeer due to predation is probably around 50,000–100,000 animals. Herders get economic compensation for losses. In Finland and Norway, this is based on the number of predator-killed reindeer that are found, while in Sweden the compensation is based on the number of predators (wolf, lynx or wolverine) or area of the herding district (bear and golden eagle). According to national policy, reindeer husbandry should be taken into account in the management of large predators, but often population goals for the predator override the interests of reindeer husbandry. Although reindeer herders acknowledge that predators have a place in the ecosystem, there is frustration about reimbursement not compensating for actual losses, and that herders’ voices are not heard, and their knowledge not recognized, when it comes to predator management

Large predators and their impact on reindeer husbandry

Several large predators (wolf, lynx, wolverine, brown bear and eagle) are present within the Fennoscandian reindeer herding area, where reindeer are often their main prey. After being more or less eradicated during the 1800s and early 1900s, predators were gradually protected leading to the recovery of all species. Growing populations of predators evidently lead to increased damage to reindeer and reindeer husbandry. In Fennoscandia, the annual loss of reindeer due to predation is probably around 50,000–100,000 animals. Herders get economic compensation for losses. In Finland and Norway, this is based on the number of predator-killed reindeer that are found, while in Sweden the compensation is based on the number of predators (wolf, lynx or wolverine) or area of the herding district (bear and golden eagle). According to national policy, reindeer husbandry should be taken into account in the management of large predators, but often population goals for the predator override the interests of reindeer husbandry. Although reindeer herders acknowledge that predators have a place in the ecosystem, there is frustration about reimbursement not compensating for actual losses, and that herders’ voices are not heard, and their knowledge not recognized, when it comes to predator management

Role of supplementary feeding in reindeer husbandry

The chapter discusses the practice of providing reindeer with supplementary feed in winter as part of reindeer husbandry in Finland, Sweden and Norway. It describes how feeding is practised, and the benefits and problems connected with this practice, as perceived in the scientific literature and by herders. It also reflects on the possible future role of feeding. Feeding of reindeer is more common in Finland than in the other two countries but seems to be gradually increasing across all Fennoscandia. The main reason is the continuing loss and deterioration of winter pastures due to expanding land use by forestry, mineral and energy production and other industrial and infrastructure schemes, leading to increased grazing pressure on the remaining land. Climate change increases the frequency of difficult winter grazing conditions, and growing predator populations restrict the use of pastures for reindeer grazing. Reduced access to natural pasture can be counteracted by supplementary feeding, but at high costs and risks of impaired animal health and welfare. Herders are also concerned that increased use of feeding may threaten land rights, transfer of traditional knowledge between generations and the ability of reindeer to make use of natural pasture resources, and thereby the traditional management system as a whole

Role of supplementary feeding in reindeer husbandry

The chapter discusses the practice of providing reindeer with supplementary feed in winter as part of reindeer husbandry in Finland, Sweden and Norway. It describes how feeding is practised, and the benefits and problems connected with this practice, as perceived in the scientific literature and by herders. It also reflects on the possible future role of feeding. Feeding of reindeer is more common in Finland than in the other two countries but seems to be gradually increasing across all Fennoscandia. The main reason is the continuing loss and deterioration of winter pastures due to expanding land use by forestry, mineral and energy production and other industrial and infrastructure schemes, leading to increased grazing pressure on the remaining land. Climate change increases the frequency of difficult winter grazing conditions, and growing predator populations restrict the use of pastures for reindeer grazing. Reduced access to natural pasture can be counteracted by supplementary feeding, but at high costs and risks of impaired animal health and welfare. Herders are also concerned that increased use of feeding may threaten land rights, transfer of traditional knowledge between generations and the ability of reindeer to make use of natural pasture resources, and thereby the traditional management system as a whole

Governing dual objectives within single policy mixes : an empirical analysis of large carnivore policies in six European countries

Policy mixes (i.e. the total structure of policy processes, strategies, and instruments) are complex constructs that can quickly become incoherent, inconsistent, and incomprehensive. This is amplified when the policy mix strives to meet multiple objectives simultaneously, such as in the case of large carnivore policy mixes. Building on Rogge and Reichardt's analytical framework for the analysis of policy mixes, we compare the policy mixes of Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands, Germany (specifically Saxony and Bavaria), and Spain (specifically Castilla y Leon). The study shows that the large carnivore policy mixes in the case countries show signs of lacking vertical and horizontal coherence in the design of policy processes, weak consistency between objectives and designated policy instruments, and, as a consequence, lacking comprehensiveness. We conclude that creating consistent, coherent, and comprehensive policy mixes that build on multiple objectives requires stepping away from sectorized policy development, toward a holistic, systemic approach, strong collaborative structures across policy boundaries and regions, the inclusion of diverse stakeholders, and constant care and attention to address all objectives simultaneously rather than in isolation.Peer reviewe

Implications of norms and knowledge in customary reindeer herding units for resource governance

Pastoralist societies have developed customary institutions to respond to an unpredictable environment and fluctuation in grazing resources for their livestock. This chapter describes how reindeer herders’ customary institutions, including laws, norms and rights embedded in social networks, as well as traditional knowledge, structure these responses. Furthermore, it analyses how reindeer herders’ customary institutions are integrated into state governance of natural resources or recognized in national legislation. Central to the chapter is the Sámi siida and the corresponding Finnish tokkakunta – both represent customary herding groups that seek to balance the relationship between human–reindeer units to the spatial and temporal availability of grazing resources. The need for revitalization and a better understanding of reindeer herders’ customary institutions is identified, as well as an increased recognition of their traditional knowledge in resource management and land use planning to increase the resilience of reindeer husbandry to the cumulative challenges of climate change and resource extraction

Struggling with ‘clear zoning’ - Dilemmas of carnivore-pastoral coexistence in Nordland, northern Norway

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