Ionometallurgy for low-temperature metal synthesis from metal oxides

Metals and valuable metal compounds are important parts of our everyday lives with applications ranging from aluminum foil over circuit boards to high-performance alloys for engineering and buildings construction. Large-scale metal production processes provide access to metals contained in numerous naturally occurring ores, earths and minerals and should be considered one of the major drivers of industrialization, leading to a continuous increase in living standards. Thereby, metals are often present in the form of oxides or other compounds of low reactivity and high stability. This makes metal extraction an often energy-intensive, environmentally problematic endeavor, relying on high reaction temperatures around 1000 °C or aggressive, corrosive and toxic chemicals. A disruptive, new approach for more sustainable metal production could be ionometallurgy, i.e., metal extraction by means of ionic liquids (ILs) and deep eutectic solvents (DESs). ILs, per definition, are salts with a melting point below 100 °C, while DESs are eutectic mixtures of two or more reagents with a melting point below that of the individual components. Both classes of materials feature favorable properties, such as a good solubility for many inorganic salts. Ionometallurgy is a seemingly simple approach, dissolving metal oxides at moderate temperature in an IL or DES and subsequently either electrodepositing the respective metal or producing valuable metal compounds by downstream chemistry. This thesis elucidated the general feasibility of the direct ionometallurgical metal production from metal oxides in two betaine-based solvents, namely the IL betainium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([Hbet][NTf2]) and a DES consisting of betaine hydrochloride, urea and glycerol in the molar ratio 1 : 4 : 2.5 ([Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY). Initial solubility studies involved a broad screening of the reaction behavior of numerous metal oxides with different properties regarding the position of the metal in the periodic table, its oxidation state as well as the basicity of the oxide. Exploiting the Brønsted-acidic functional group of the betainium cation, metal oxide dissolution in this case follows the principle of an acid-base reaction. Correspondingly, [Hbet][NTf2] favors the dissolution of basic or amphoteric metal oxides, while acidic metal oxides remain unaffected. In-depth investigations were performed for the examples of copper, cobalt and aluminum and identified the metal oxide lattice energy, the crystal structure and the reaction temperature as well as complex stabilities of the metal ions as additional factors to influence the solubility. How additives can affect the reaction outcome in multiple ways was shown for the example of chloride. In the copper system, small amounts of chloride act catalytically, while larger concentrations not only decrease the reaction time but also exhibit a structure-directing effect. For cobalt oxides, chloride is assumed to be reaction-driving due to the high chloride affinity of cobalt(II). These results were supported by seven new crystal structures found in the course of these investigations. Thereby, for the first time, metal oxide dissolution in [Hbet][NTf2] was systematically investigated under water-poor conditions. Abstaining from aqueous IL solutions, although water was shown to promote metal oxide dissolution, enables access to several metals via electrodeposition. This is facilitated by the large electrochemical windows of [Hbet][NTf2] and [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY, amounting to −2.0–1.4 V and −2.3–0.9 V, respectively. Copper, cobalt, nickel, tin, lead, zinc, and small amounts of vanadium were shown to be electrochemically reducible, whereas manganese, molybdenum and aluminum could not be electrodeposited within the electrochemical stability range of the IL or DES. For the deposition of the noble metal copper, the chloride content, the deposition temperature and additional organic solvents were identified as crucial parameters for the deposition potential as well as the quality of the deposit. By copper-coating a steel plate, a potentially industrially relevant application was demonstrated. Compared to the conventional industrial process for copper production, this ionometallurgical approach could imply a significant simplification and proceed at much lower reaction temperatures. Starting from tenorite or oxidic copper waste, copper coatings could directly be producible avoiding multiple process steps. Furthermore, the cobalt system revealed, that the thorough understanding of the complex equilibria present in solution is crucial for the successful electrodeposition of the metal. Thus, no deposits were obtained when anionic [CoCl4]2– was the predominant cobalt complex species. The adjustment of the cobalt-to-chloride ratio is a suitable method to generate sufficient amounts of cationic cobalt complexes, allowing for the deposition of the metal. Overall, several metals were directly produced from their oxides by the ionometallurgical approach at temperatures below 175 ℃. This means a significant temperature reduction compared to the conventional processes. Encouragingly, [Hbet][NTf2] already showed first promising results when applied to industrially relevant starting materials, such as black mass for the recycling of lithium ion batteries or bauxite as a highly relevant, naturally occurring aluminum resource. While this qualifies ionometallurgy in principle as a considerable improvement regarding process sustainability, the impact of [Hbet][NTf2] and [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY was analyzed in more depth. Thereby, the recyclability of the solvents is considered a very important factor for the efficient implementation of ionometallurgy in larger scale. First experiments in a two-compartment electrochemical cell showed that metals can be electrodeposited cathodically with a tailorable anode reaction. The oxygen evolution reaction in an aqueous electrolyte proved as suitable benign oxidation reaction in the anode half cell. The intactness of [Hbet][NTf2] after metal electrodeposition in this set-up was evidenced by NMR spectroscopy, qualifying the IL for reuse in principle. As opposed to this, decomposition reactions were identified to take place in both the IL and the DES. At 175 °C, [Hbet][NTf2] undergoes the chloride-induced decomposition via a Hunsdieker and a Deacon reaction, which is avoidable by a lower reaction temperature of 150 °C. NMR studies suggest that [Hbet][NTf2] does not decompose during the ionometallurgical process at this temperature. However, in the case of [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY, NMR and mass spectrometric studies proved the degradation via several decomposition pathways at 60 °C already. These decomposition reactions change the composition of the DES, which also affects the solubility of metal oxides. The thermal and chemical stability of [Hbet][NTf2] and [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY, besides other factors, have direct implications for their consideration as green solvents. Thus, [Hbet][NTf2] should only be used at reaction temperatures below 150 °C. Furthermore, its industrial application might be impeded by the expensive and toxic [NTf2]– anion. While betaine-based solvents can be easily accessible due to the natural abundance of betaine, the synthesis effort of the [NTf2]– anion makes [Hbet][NTf2] a considerably expensive IL. [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY is cheaper and easier to be synthesized from naturally abundant substances, yet not a considerable option due to its decomposition at low temperature already. Its thermal and chemical instability pose hardly surmountable obstacles regarding the recycling and the toxicity of [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY. Thus, both [Hbet][NTf2] and [Hbet]Cl/4U/2.5GLY do not qualify as green solvents and more benign alternatives should be found in the future. Altogether, this thesis showed that the ionometallurgical production of metals from their oxides is possible and, moreover, could be a sustainable alternative to conventional processes. The presented investigations extend our understanding of metal oxide chemistry in ILs or DESs and provide proofs of concept, laying a foundation for further work that leaves numerous opportunities for ongoing exploration and optimization. Hence, ionometallurgy could be one step to face the urgent challenge of climate change

EMBARKING ON AN INTERACTIVE LEARNING JOURNEY: EXPLORING THE INTERACTION VALUE OF VOICEBOTS VERSUS CHATBOTS

This study compares the perceived students’ value-in-interaction of a voicebot versus a chatbot that respectively guides through an interactive, gamified learning journey. 32 students participated in this within-subject experiment while exploring learning content on the evolution of computers in a guided either text-based or voice-based interaction with a conversational agent. We measured the value in relatedness, matching, and service value in a follow-up survey, compared the number of correctly answered quiz questions at the end of the experiment, and discussed student’s experiences in short interviews afterward to gather further qualitative insights. While our quantitative results do not indicate significant differences between the two interaction modes neither in descriptive statistics nor in t-tests, our qualitative results indicate that both conversational agents are perceived as valuable learning facilitators with individual preferences that are student- and context-specific regarding each interaction mode. Finally, we suggest needed further research

Multivariate Profile Monitoring Method: An Application in Product Portfolio Management

Several authors refer to product portfolio management as an essential process because it may be used as a corporate management tool. However, the product portfolio management methods which are often adopted have limitations that prevent its use in practice, mainly due to the high dimensionality of selecting an optimal portfolio. Moreover, the large amount of available data is a relevant issue for practical applications. Thus, the contribution of this article is to propose a method for the product life cycle to monitor time-series behaviour patterns. The goal is to identify changes that may indicate that the product portfolio needs to be revised. The proposed method uses a multivariate regression model to relate financial variables associated with the products portfolio, the performance of products against competition, and even macroeconomic data. The objective is, through profile monitoring, to identify the specific time for the product portfolio review decision-making. We adopted three tools to develop a method – principal component analysis, multivariate regression model, and profile monitoring with Hotelling T 2 Control chart. A Monte Carlo simulation validated the approach. The results showed false alarm rate and average time to signal to be similar to previous studies. Finally, the application of the model is illustrated in a real case, using data provided by a company’s portfolio of agricultural equipment

Efficient solar hydrogen generation in microgravity environment

Long-term space missions require extra-terrestrial production of storable, renewable energy. Hydrogen is ascribed a crucial role for transportation, electrical power and oxygen generation. We demonstrate in a series of drop tower experiments that efficient direct hydrogen production can be realized photoelectrochemically in microgravity environment, providing an alternative route to existing life support technologies for space travel. The photoelectrochemical cell consists of an integrated catalyst-functionalized semiconductor system that generates hydrogen with current densities >15 mA/cm2 in the absence of buoyancy. Conditions are described adverting the resulting formation of ion transport blocking froth layers on the photoelectrodes. The current limiting factors were overcome by controlling the micro- and nanotopography of the Rh electrocatalyst using shadow nanosphere lithography. The behaviour of the applied system in terrestrial and microgravity environment is simulated using a kinetic transport model. Differences observed for varied catalyst topography are elucidated, enabling future photoelectrode designs for use in reduced gravity environments

Dysregulation of Rho GTPases in the αPix/Arhgef6 mouse model of X-linked intellectual disability is paralleled by impaired structural and synaptic plasticity and cognitive deficits

Mutations in the ARHGEF6 gene, encoding the guanine nucleotide exchange factor αPIX/Cool-2 for the Rho GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42, cause X-linked intellectual disability (ID) in humans. We show here that αPix/Arhgef6 is primarily expressed in neuropil regions of the hippocampus. To study the role of αPix/Arhgef6 in neuronal development and plasticity and gain insight into the pathogenic mechanisms underlying ID, we generated αPix/Arhgef6-deficient mice. Gross brain structure in these mice appeared to be normal; however, analysis of Golgi-Cox-stained pyramidal neurons revealed an increase in both dendritic length and spine density in the hippocampus, accompanied by an overall loss in spine synapses. Early-phase long-term potentiation was reduced and long-term depression was increased in the CA1 hippocampal area of αPix/Arhgef6-deficient animals. Knockout animals exhibited impaired spatial and complex learning and less behavioral control in mildly stressful situations, suggesting that this model mimics the human ID phenotype. The structural and electrophysiological alterations in the hippocampus were accompanied by a significant reduction in active Rac1 and Cdc42, but not RhoA. In conclusion, we suggest that imbalance in activity of different Rho GTPases may underlie altered neuronal connectivity and impaired synaptic function and cognition in αPix/Arhgef6 knockout mic

HE4 as a serum biomarker for the diagnosis of pelvic masses: a prospective, multicenter study in 965 patients

Background: To evaluate the diagnostic value of adding human epididymis protein 4 (HE4), cancer antigen 125 (CA125) and risk of malignancy algorithm (ROMA) to ultrasound for detecting ovarian cancer in patients with a pelvic mass. Methods: This was a prospective, observational, multicenter study. Patients aged > 18 years who were scheduled to undergo surgery for a suspicious pelvic mass had CA125 and HE4 levels measured prior to surgery, in addition to a routine transvaginal ultrasound scan. The diagnostic performance of CA125, HE4 and ROMA for distinguishing between benign and malignant adnexal masses was assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis and the corresponding area under the curve (AUC). Results: Of 965 evaluable patients, 804 were diagnosed with benign tumors and 161 were diagnosed with ovarian cancer. In late-stage ovarian cancer, CA125, HE4 and ROMA all had an excellent diagnostic performance (AUC > 0.92), whereas in stage I and II, diagnostic performance of all three biomarkers was less adequate (AUC < 0.77). In the differential diagnosis of ovarian cancer and endometriosis, ROMA and HE4 performed better than CA125 with 99 and 98.1% versus 75.0% sensitivity, respectively, at 75.4% specificity. Conclusions: ROMA and HE4 could be valuable biomarkers to help with the diagnosis of ovarian cancer in premenopausal patients in order to differentiate from endometriosis, whereas CA125 may be more adequate for postmenopausal patients

Selective Blocking of TNF Receptor 1 Attenuates Peritoneal Dialysis Fluid Induced Inflammation of the Peritoneum in Mice

Chronic inflammatory conditions during peritoneal dialysis (PD)-treatment lead to the impairment of peritoneal tissue integrity. The resulting structural and functional reorganization of the peritoneal membrane diminishes ultrafiltration rate and thereby enhances mortality by limiting dialysis effectiveness over time. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and its receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2 are key players during inflammatory processes. To date, the role of TNFR1 in peritoneal tissue damage during PD-treatment is completely undefined. In this study, we used an acute PD-mouse model to investigate the role of TNFR1 on structural and morphological changes of the peritoneal membrane. TNFR1-mediated TNF signalling in transgenic mice expressing human TNFR1 was specifically blocked by applying a monoclonal antibody (H398) highly selective for human TNFR1 prior to PD-treatment. Cancer antigen-125 (CA125) plasma concentrations were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Western blot analyses were applied to determine TNFR2 protein concentrations. Histological staining of peritoneal tissue sections was performed to assess granulocytes within the peritoneal membrane as well as the content of hyaluronic acid and collagen. We show for the first time that the number of granulocytes within the peritoneal membrane is significantly reduced in mice pre-treated with H398. Moreover, we demonstrate that blocking of TNFR1 not only influences CA125 values but also hyaluronic acid and collagen contents of the peritoneal tissue in these mice. These results strongly suggest that TNFR1 inhibition attenuates peritoneal damage caused by peritoneal dialysis fluid (PDF) and therefore may represent a new therapeutic approach in the treatment of PD-related side effects

Cdc20 hypomorphic mice fail to counteract de novo synthesis of cyclin B1 in mitosis

Low expression levels of Cdc20 result in chromatin bridging and chromosome misalignment, revealing a requirement for Cdc20 in efficient sister chromosome separation and chromosome–microtubule attachment

Acute Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Prevents H2O2-Induced Premature Senescence in Primary Human Keratinocytes

We investigated the effects of AMPK on H2O2-induced premature senescence in primary human keratinocytes. Incubation with 50 µM H2O2 for 2 h resulted in premature senescence with characteristic increases in senescence-associated ß-galactosidase (SA-gal) staining 3 days later and no changes in AMPK or p38 MAPK activity. The increase in SA-gal staining was preceded by increases in both p53 phosphorylation (S15) (1 h) and transactivation (6 h) and the abundance of the cyclin inhibitor p21CIP1 (16 h). Incubation with AICAR or resveratrol, both of which activated AMPK, prevented the H2O2-induced increases in both SA-Gal staining and p21 abundance. In addition, AICAR diminished the increase in p53 transactivation. The decreases in SA-Gal expression induced by resveratrol and AICAR were prevented by the pharmacological AMPK inhibitor Compound C, expression of a DN-AMPK or AMPK knock-down with shRNA. Likewise, both knockdown of AMPK and expression of DN-AMPK were sufficient to induce senescence, even in the absence of exogenous H2O2. As reported by others, we found that AMPK activation by itself increased p53 phosphorylation at S15 in embryonic fibroblasts (MEF), whereas under the same conditions it decreased p53 phosphorylation in the keratinocytes, human aortic endothelial cells, and human HT1080 fibrosarcoma cells. In conclusion, the results indicate that H2O2 at low concentrations causes premature senescence in human keratinocytes by activating p53-p21CIP1 signaling and that these effects can be prevented by acute AMPK activation and enhanced by AMPK downregulation. They also suggest that this action of AMPK may be cell or context-specific

Telomerecat: A ploidy-agnostic method for estimating telomere length from whole genome sequencing data.

Telomere length is a risk factor in disease and the dynamics of telomere length are crucial to our understanding of cell replication and vitality. The proliferation of whole genome sequencing represents an unprecedented opportunity to glean new insights into telomere biology on a previously unimaginable scale. To this end, a number of approaches for estimating telomere length from whole-genome sequencing data have been proposed. Here we present Telomerecat, a novel approach to the estimation of telomere length. Previous methods have been dependent on the number of telomeres present in a cell being known, which may be problematic when analysing aneuploid cancer data and non-human samples. Telomerecat is designed to be agnostic to the number of telomeres present, making it suited for the purpose of estimating telomere length in cancer studies. Telomerecat also accounts for interstitial telomeric reads and presents a novel approach to dealing with sequencing errors. We show that Telomerecat performs well at telomere length estimation when compared to leading experimental and computational methods. Furthermore, we show that it detects expected patterns in longitudinal data, repeated measurements, and cross-species comparisons. We also apply the method to a cancer cell data, uncovering an interesting relationship with the underlying telomerase genotype