Effects of regular off-farm activities on household agricultural income: Evidence from Kenya’s Kerio Valley

This paper contributes to clarifying the scientific debate on whether off-farm activities hurt or help agricultural income. The main purpose of this research is to estimate the impacts of rural household’s participation in regular off-farm activities on agricultural income. The literature indicates that off-farm activities affect rural household’s income but studies on their effect on agricultural income have remained largely inconclusive. Determining how off farm activities affect agricultural income is highly relevant for the decisions of poor rural households and policy makers to allocate resources efficiently and increase investment to combat poverty. Investigation of the effects of regular off-farm activities is carried out in the following logical sequence: we performed surveys to gather information from rural households located in the Kerio Valley in Kenya; using the matching technique, we compared agricultural income per capita between households that took part in regular off-farm activities and those that did not. Methodological tools of the research were the results of a three-year project focusing on improving rural income. The object of research is the households in Kerio Valley in Kenya because they practiced the typical mix of farm and off-farm activities in rural Kenya. The empirical results of the analysis showed at first that household’s participation in regular off-farm activities had no significant effect on household agricultural income per capita. However, by splitting agricultural income into crop and livestock incomes, we found that participation in regular off-farm activities did not affect crop income per capita but it increased livestock income per capita. The results can be useful to policy makers because it shows the existence of a symbiotic association between regular off-farm activities and livestock production. The results also confirm that creating opportunities for rural households to engage in off-farm activities generates supplemental revenues, and more importantly, reliable assets

Forging Ahead By Land and By Sea: Archaeology and Paleoclimate Reconstruction in Madagascar

Madagascar is an exceptional example of island biogeography. Though a large island, Madagascar’s landmass is small relative to other places in the world with comparable levels of biodiversity, endemicity, and topographic and climatic variation. Moreover, the timing of Madagascar’s human colonization and the social-ecological trajectories that followed human arrival make the island a unique case study for understanding the dynamic relationship between humans, environment, and climate. These changes are most famously illustrated by the mass extinction of the island’s megafauna but also include a range of other developments. Given the chronological confluence of human arrival and dramatic transformations of island ecologies, one of the most important overarching questions for research on Madagascar is how best to understand the interconnections between human communities, the environment, and climate. In this review paper, we contribute to the well-established discussion of this complex question by highlighting the potential for new multidisciplinary research collaborations in the southwest part of the island. Specifically, we promote the comparison of paleoclimate indicators from securely dated archaeological and paleontological contexts with Western Indian Ocean climate records, as a productive way to improve the overall resolution of paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental reconstruction for the island. Given new archaeological findings that more than double the length of Madagascar’s human occupation, models of environmental transformation post-human arrival must be reassessed and allow for the possibility of slower and more varied rates of change. Improving the spatial and temporal resolution of paleoclimate reconstruction is critical in distinguishing anthropogenic and climate drivers of environmental change. It will also increase our capacity to leverage archaeological and paleoclimate research toward resolving modern challenges, such as environmental conservation and poverty alleviation