Relationship between stand and landscape attributes and Ips typographus salvage loggings in Finland

Disturbances caused by the European spruce bark beetle (SBB; Ips typographus L.) on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.), have increased immensely across Central and Northern Europe, and are expected to increase further as a result of climate change. While this trend has been noted in Finland, so far limited research has been published. To support proper SBB risk management in Finland, we compared stand properties between salvage loggings due to SBB damage during 2012–2020 (4691 cases) and spruce stands free of SBB damage. Also, we explored the role of landscape attributes as drivers of SBB damage. We considered the forest stand attributes of site fertility class, stand development class, soil type, stand mean diameter at breast height and mean stand age. Considered forest landscape attributes were the distance from SBB-damaged stands to the closest clear-cut, to previous-year SBB-damaged stands and to the previous-year wind-damaged stand. We used nationwide forest logging and forest stock data, and analysed forest stand attributes using Chi-squared and Mann-Whitney U tests and landscape attributes using generalised linear mixed models. Based on our findings, the SBB didn’t damage stands randomly, but prevailed in mature stands (high age and high mean diameter at breast height), in herb-rich heath forest site types and in semi-coarse or coarse heath forest soil soils. We found correlation between the landscape variables and the number of salvage loggings, with a higher number of loggings due to SBB damage close to clear-cuts. Our results help to find risk areas of SBB damage

Carbon dioxide exchange of a perennial bioenergy crop cultivation on a mineral soil

One of the strategies to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the energy sector is to increase the use of renewable energy sources such as bioenergy crops. Bioenergy is not necessarily carbon neutral because of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during biomass production, field management and transportation. The present study focuses on the cultivation of reed canary grass (RCG, Phalaris arundinaceae L.), a perennial bioenergy crop, on a mineral soil. To quantify the CO2 exchange of this RCG cultivation system, and to understand the key factors controlling its CO2 exchange, the net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) was measured during three years using the eddy covariance (EC) method. The RCG cultivation thrived well producing yields of 6200 and 6700 kg DW ha−1 in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Gross photosynthesis (GPP) was controlled mainly by radiation from June to September. Vapour pressure deficit (VPD), air temperature or soil moisture did not limit photosynthesis during the growing season. Total ecosystem respiration (TER) increased with soil temperature, green area index and GPP. Annual NEE was −262 and −256 g C m−2 in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Throughout the studied period, cumulative NEE was −575 g C m−2. When compared to the published data for RCG on an organic soil, the cultivation of this crop on a mineral soil had higher capacity to take up CO2 from the atmosphere.Non peer reviewe

Carbon dioxide exchange of a perennial bioenergy crop cultivation on a mineral soil

One of the strategies to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the energy sector is to increase the use of renewable energy sources such as bioenergy crops. Bioenergy is not necessarily carbon neutral because of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during biomass production, field management and transportation. The present study focuses on the cultivation of reed canary grass (RCG, Phalaris arundinaceae L.), a perennial bioenergy crop, on a mineral soil. To quantify the CO2 exchange of this RCG cultivation system, and to understand the key factors controlling its CO2 exchange, the net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) was measured during three years using the eddy covariance (EC) method. The RCG cultivation thrived well producing yields of 6200 and 6700 kg DW ha−1 in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Gross photosynthesis (GPP) was controlled mainly by radiation from June to September. Vapour pressure deficit (VPD), air temperature or soil moisture did not limit photosynthesis during the growing season. Total ecosystem respiration (TER) increased with soil temperature, green area index and GPP. Annual NEE was −262 and −256 g C m−2 in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Throughout the studied period, cumulative NEE was −575 g C m−2. When compared to the published data for RCG on an organic soil, the cultivation of this crop on a mineral soil had higher capacity to take up CO2 from the atmosphere.Non peer reviewe

Brain-to-brain hyperclassification reveals action-specific motor mapping of observed actions in humans

Seeing an action may activate the corresponding action motor code in the observer. It remains unresolved whether seeing and performing an action activates similar action-specific motor codes in the observer and the actor. We used novel hyperclassification approach to reveal shared brain activation signatures of action execution and observation in interacting human subjects. In the first experiment, two "actors" performed four types of hand actions while their haemodynamic brain activations were measured with 3-T functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The actions were videotaped and shown to 15 "observers" during a second fMRI experiment. Eleven observers saw the videos of one actor, and the remaining four observers saw the videos of the other actor. In a control fMRI experiment, one of the actors performed actions with closed eyes, and five new observers viewed these actions. Bayesian canonical correlation analysis was applied to functionally realign observers' and actors' fMRI data. Hyperclassification of the seen actions was performed with Bayesian logistic regression trained on actors' data and tested with observers' data. Without the functional realignment, between-subjects accuracy was at chance level. With the realignment, the accuracy increased on average by 15 percentage points, exceeding both the chance level and the accuracy without functional realignment. The highest accuracies were observed in occipital, parietal and premotor cortices. Hyperclassification exceeded chance level also when the actor did not see her own actions. We conclude that the functional brain activation signatures underlying action execution and observation are partly shared, yet these activation signatures may be anatomically misaligned across individuals

Maan ja veden omistus: ongelmia, tietoa ja tutkimustarpeita

Suomessa valtaosa biomassan tuotannossa olevasta maatalous- ja metsätalousmaasta on yksityisomistuksessa. Maanomistuksen muutoksessa päätrendejä ovat olleet omistuksen rakenteen sekä omistajien arvojen ja tavoitteiden muutokset. Rakenteellisista muutoksista tärkeimpiä ovat olleet maaomistuksen polarisaatio, pirstoutuminen ja suuruusrationalisointi, aktiivimaatilojen väheneminen, omistajien ammatillinen eriytyminen, kaupungistuminen ja tietyiltä osin myös ikääntyminen. Näillä muutoksilla on suuria vaikutuksia biotalouteen, ruoan ja raakapuun tuotantoon ja tulevaisuudessa entistä enemmän ekosysteemipalvelujen tuotantoon. Tässä raportissa maanomistajuutta tarkastellaan kokonaisuutena. Raportissa nostetaan esiin maanomistukseen liittyviä ongelmia ja tutkimuksen vastauksia niihin. Ennen kaikkea pyritään olemassa olevan tiedon perusteella luotaamaan tulevaisuuden tutkimustarpeita. Raportissa tarkastellaan aluksi maanomistusrakenteen muutosta tilan sukupolvenvaihdoksien ja omistajien muutoksen näkökulmasta. Tarkastelua laajennetaan maanomistajien arvojen, tavoitteiden ja käyttäytymisen kuvaukseen. Raportti tarkastelee myös epäselviä omistusoikeuksia ja psykologisen omistajuuden näkökulmaa. Tilusjärjestelyjen, sekä pellon ja metsän vuokrauksen lisäksi raportissa käsitellään yhteisomistusta, osuustoimintaa sekä institutionaalista omistusta. Metsästysoikeuksien tarkastelun jälkeen luodaan katsaus maanomistajatutkimuksessa käytettävissä oleviin rekistereihin. Lopuksi vedetään yhteen tärkeimpiä tulevaisuuden tutkimustarpeita.Artikkelit: Jussi Leppänen, Harri Hänninen ja Sami Myyrä. Maanomistusrakenne ja sukupolvenvaihdokset, s 7-12. Harri Hänninen, Heimo Karppinen ja Sami Myyrä. Maanomistajat bioresurssien tuottajina ja kuluttajina, s. 13-17. Heimo Karppinen, Sami Myyrä ja Eija Pouta. Maanomistajien arvot, tavoitteet ja niiden muutos, s. 18-21. Pekka Salmi, Jari Setälä, Erkki Mäntymaa, Rainer Peltola, Eija Pouta ja Antti Miettinen. Määrittelemättömät omistusoikeudet ja omistajuus, s. 22-28. Annukka Vainio. Psykologinen omistajuus, s. 29-31. Pasi Rikkonen, Sami Myyrä, Harri Hänninen, Jussi Leppänen ja Pekka Salmi. Tilus- ja yhdistämisjärjestelyt keinona parantaa rakennekehityksen hallittavuutta ja kilpailukykyä, s. 32-38. Teppo Hujala, Sami Myyrä, Harri Hänninen ja Sami Ovaska. Pellon ja metsän vuokraus – tarve vauhdittaa vai jarruttaa? s. 39-42. Pekka Salmi, Olli Niskanen ja Esa-Jussi Viitala. Osuustoiminta, yhteisomistus, yhteishallinta ja institutionaalinen omistus, s. 43-46. Jani Pellikka. Maanomistajat, metsästysoikeus ja metsästys, s. 47-51. Harri Hänninen. Rekisteriaineistojen käyttö maanomistajatutkimuksissa, s. 52-56. Heimo Karppinen. Lopuksi, s. 57-58.201

Studying the spatial variability of methane flux with five eddy covariance towers of varying height

In this study, the spatial representativeness of eddy covariance (EC) methane (CH4) measurements was examined by comparing parallel CH4 fluxes from three short (6 m) towers separated by a few kilometres and from two higher levels (20 m and 60 m) at one location. The measurement campaign was held on an intensively managed grassland on peat soil in the Netherlands. The land use and land cover types are to a large degree homogeneous in the area. The CH4 fluxes exhibited significant variability between the sites on 30-min scale. The spatial coefficient of variation (CVspa) between the three short towers was 56% and it was of similar magnitude as the temporal variability, unlike for the other fluxes (friction velocity, sensible heat flux) for which the temporal variability was considerably larger than the spatial variability. The CVspa decreased with temporal averaging, although less than what could be expected for a purely random process (1/√N), and it was 14% for 26-day means of CH4 flux. This reflects the underlying heterogeneity of CH4 flux in the studied landscape at spatial scales ranging from 1 ha (flux footprint) to 10 km2 (area bounded by the short towers). This heterogeneity should be taken into account when interpreting and comparing EC measurements. On an annual scale, the flux spatial variability contributed up to 50% of the uncertainty in CH4 emissions. It was further tested whether EC flux measurements at higher levels could be used to acquire a more accurate estimate of the spatially integrated CH4 emissions. Contrarily to what was expected, flux intensity was found to both increase and decrease depending on measurement height. Using footprint modelling, 56% of the variation between 6 m and 60 m CH4 fluxes was attributed to emissions from local anthropogenic hotspots (farms). Furthermore, morning hours proved to be demanding for the tall tower EC where fluxes at 60 m were up to four-fold those at lower heights. These differences were connected with the onset of convective mixing during the morning period.Peer reviewe

Effects of nitrogen fertilization on the ground vegetation cover and soil chemical properties in Scots pine and Norway spruce stands

The aim of this study was to investigate the short-term effects of nitrogen (N) fertilization intensity on the ground vegetation cover and soil chemical properties in two Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and two Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) dominated stands on upland forest sites in Eastern Finland. The fertilizer was applied using a helicopter in the spruce stands and a forwarder in the pine stands. The distribution and the amount of fertilizer was measured with funnel traps. Cover of each species of ground vegetation was estimated before fertilization and 3–4 years after it in pine and 2–3 years after it in spruce stands. Further, the cover observations were aggregated by plant types. Based on measurements, we analyzed the effects of the funnel-trap-observed amount of N fertilizer on the cover and plant type composition of ground vegetation and soil N and C concentration. In addition, we analyzed the impacts of competition caused by trees on the ground vegetation cover based on competition indices. N fertilization increased the cover of herbaceous plants and decreased the cover of mosses and dwarf shrubs, and the total cover of ground vegetation. Further, it increased the N concentration of the mor humus layer. The magnitude of the changes increased with the intensity of the N fertilization. The competition caused by trees did not affect the cover of ground vegetation

Towards long-term standardised carbon and greenhouse gas observations for monitoring Europe's terrestrial ecosystems : a review

Research infrastructures play a key role in launching a new generation of integrated long-term, geographically distributed observation programmes designed to monitor climate change, better understand its impacts on global ecosystems, and evaluate possible mitigation and adaptation strategies. The pan-European Integrated Carbon Observation System combines carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG; CO2, CH4, N2O, H2O) observations within the atmosphere, terrestrial ecosystems and oceans. High-precision measurements are obtained using standardised methodologies, are centrally processed and openly available in a traceable and verifiable fashion in combination with detailed metadata. The Integrated Carbon Observation System ecosystem station network aims to sample climate and land-cover variability across Europe. In addition to GHG flux measurements, a large set of complementary data (including management practices, vegetation and soil characteristics) is collected to support the interpretation, spatial upscaling and modelling of observed ecosystem carbon and GHG dynamics. The applied sampling design was developed and formulated in protocols by the scientific community, representing a trade-off between an ideal dataset and practical feasibility. The use of open-access, high-quality and multi-level data products by different user communities is crucial for the Integrated Carbon Observation System in order to achieve its scientific potential and societal value.Peer reviewe

Effects of forest conservation and management on timber, ecosystem carbon, dead wood and habitat suitability area in a boreal forest under climate change

We used forest ecosystem model simulations to study how forest conservation and management intensity affected timber yield, ecosystem carbon stocks, amount of dead wood, and habitat suitability area in a middle boreal forest region of Finland under changing climate over a 90-year simulation period. We used the following forest conservation and management scenarios: baseline forest management (BM), BM with 10 or 20% increase of conservation area with or without intensified forest management (i.e. improved forest regeneration material and forest fertilization). The simulations were done under current climate (reference period of 1981–2010), and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) climate change projections under the RCP2.6 and RCP4.5 forcing scenarios. Overall, increasing the forest conservation area decreased timber yield and increased the ecosystem carbon stock, the amount of dead wood and consequently the area of suitable habitat for saproxylic species. The use of intensified forest management reduced the loss of timber yield, increased ecosystem carbon stock, the amount of dead wood and area of suitable habitat for saproxylic species. At the end of simulation period, the use of intensified forest management even overcompensated (4–6% higher) the timber loss from 10% increase of conservation area. Under changing climate, timber yield, the amount of dead wood and the area of suitable habitats for saproxylic species increased. To conclude, with intensified forest management it is possible, in the short term, to decrease the loss of timber yield through increased forest conservation area and in the long term maintain or even increase it compared to baseline forest management