Congruence of local ecological knowledge (LEK)-based methods and line-transect surveys in estimating wildlife abundance in tropical forests

Effective estimation of wildlife population abundance is an important component of population monitoring, and ultimately essential for the development of conservation actions. Diurnal line-transect surveys are one of the most applied methods for abundance estimations. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) is empirically acquired through the observation of ecological processes by local people. LEK-based methods have only been recognized as valid scientific methods for surveying fauna abundance in the last three decades. However, the agreement between both methods has not been extensively analysed. We compared concomitant abundance data for 91 wild species (mammals, birds and tortoises) from diurnal line transects (9,221 km of trails) and a LEK-based method (291 structured interviews) at 18 sites in Central and Western Amazonia. We used biological and socioecological factors to assess the agreements and divergences between abundance indices obtained from both methods. We found a significant agreement of population abundance indices for diurnal and game species. This relationship was also positive regardless of species sociality (solitary or social), body size and locomotion mode (terrestrial and arboreal); and of sampled forest type (upland and flooded forests). Conversely, we did not find significant abundance covariances for nocturnal and non-game species. Despite the general agreement between methods, line transects were not effective at surveying many species occurring in the area, with 40.2% and 39.8% of all species being rarely and never detected in at least one of the survey sites. On the other hand, these species were widely reported by local informants to occur at intermediate to high abundances. Although LEK-based methods have been long neglected by ecologists, our comparative study demonstrated their effectiveness for estimating vertebrate abundance of a wide diversity of taxa and forest environments. This can be used simultaneously with line-transect surveys to calibrate abundance estimates and record species that are rarely sighted during surveys on foot, but that are often observed by local people during their daily extractive activities. Thus, the combination of local and scientific knowledge is a potential tool to improve our knowledge of tropical forest species and foster the development of effective strategies to meet biodiversity conservation goals

Predicting animal abundance through local ecological knowledge: An internal validation using consensus analysis

Given the ongoing environmental degradation from local to global scales, it is fundamental to develop more efficient means of gathering data on species and ecosystems. Local ecological knowledge, in which local communities can consistently provide information on the status of animal species over time, has been shown to be effective. Several studies demonstrate that data gathered using local ecological knowledge (LEK)-based methods are comparable with data obtained from conventional methods (such as line transects and camera traps). Here, we employ a consensus analysis to validate and evaluate the accuracy of interview data on LEK. Additionally, we investigate the influence of social and bioecological variables on enhancing data quality. We interviewed 323 persons in 19 villages in the Western and Central Amazon to determine the level of consensus on the abundance of hunted and non-hunted forest species. These villages varied in size, socio-economic characteristics and in the experience with wildlife of their dwellers. Interviewees estimated the relative abundance of 101 species with a broad spectrum of bioecological characteristics using a four-point Likert scale. High consensus was found for species population abundance in all sampled villages and for 79.6% of interviewees. The village consensus of all species abundance pooled was negatively correlated with village population size. The consensus level was high regardless of the interviewees' hunting experience. Species that are more frequently hunted or are more apparent had greater consensus values; only two species presented a low consensus level, which are rare and solitary species. We show in our study in the Amazon that information gathered by local peoples, Indigenous as well as non-Indigenous, can be useful in understanding the status of animal species found within their environment. The high level of cultural consensus we describe likely arises from knowledge sharing and the strong connection between the persons interviewed and the forest. We suggest that consensus analysis can be used to validate LEK-generated data instead of comparing these types of data with information obtained by conventional methods

Predicting animal abundance through local ecological knowledge: An internal validation using consensus analysis

Given the ongoing environmental degradation from local to global scales, it is fundamental to develop more efficient means of gathering data on species and ecosystems. Local ecological knowledge, in which local communities can consistently provide information on the status of animal species over time, has been shown to be effective. Several studies demonstrate that data gathered using local ecological knowledge (LEK)‐based methods are comparable with data obtained from conventional methods (such as line transects and camera traps). Here, we employ a consensus analysis to validate and evaluate the accuracy of interview data on LEK. Additionally, we investigate the influence of social and bioecological variables on enhancing data quality. We interviewed 323 persons in 19 villages in the Western and Central Amazon to determine the level of consensus on the abundance of hunted and non‐hunted forest species. These villages varied in size, socio‐economic characteristics and in the experience with wildlife of their dwellers. Interviewees estimated the relative abundance of 101 species with a broad spectrum of bioecological characteristics using a four‐point Likert scale. High consensus was found for species population abundance in all sampled villages and for 79.6% of interviewees. The village consensus of all species abundance pooled was negatively correlated with village population size. The consensus level was high regardless of the interviewees' hunting experience. Species that are more frequently hunted or are more apparent had greater consensus values; only two species presented a low consensus level, which are rare and solitary species. We show in our study in the Amazon that information gathered by local peoples, Indigenous as well as non‐Indigenous, can be useful in understanding the status of animal species found within their environment. The high level of cultural consensus we describe likely arises from knowledge sharing and the strong connection between the persons interviewed and the forest. We suggest that consensus analysis can be used to validate LEK‐generated data instead of comparing these types of data with information obtained by conventional methods. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog

Comparative study of the Saimiri species voigt, 1831 (Primates, Cebidae) at Mamirauá reserve, Amazonas

One of the ten primate species found at Mamirauá Reserve (RDSM) is Saimiri vanzolinii that have the boundaries of distribution hitherto not defined. The distribution area of S. vanzolinii is considered the smallest among neotropical primates species, about 950km². Two other forms of Saimiri occur at the region, but their taxonomic status has not been determined yet. The aim of this study was to establish ecological and behavioural characteristics that might act as causes for reproductive isolation among the Saimiri forms at the Mamirauá Reserve area. Several sample areas were surveyed, near to both river banks and channels that coincide with the boundaries of the geographic distribution of S. vanzolinii. Geographic coordinates were recorded each five minutes of the way with a GPS. For each site where a social unit of Saimiri was found some additional information was registered such as the locality, number of individuals, habitat type, water marks on the trees, and other primate species associated with the squirrel monkeys. The “cackle” vocalization was recorded whenever possible. The total distance surveyed was 218 km, where 328 social units of the genus Saimiri were recorded: 41% of Saimiri vanzolinii, 30% of Saimiri sp.1 and 29% of Saimiri sp.2. One of the limits of distribution (western-northwestern) of S. vanzolini was confirmed. This species were absent from two areas where their presence was previously believed. Sympatric and syntopic areas were also observed. The area in use by Saimiri vanzolinii was 106 km², smaller than previously known, occupying only 870 km², it corroborated that hypothesis that Saimiri vanzolinii have the smallest distribution among the neotropical primate species. The most important results of this study that might determine the reproductive isolation among Saimiri forms are the differential habitat use types (habitat selectivity), size of their social units, discrepancy between use of vertical strata and high initialisation frequencies for the “cackle” vocalization. Saimiri vanzolinii shows preference for the “chavascal” habitat on both sazonal extremes (dry and wet seasons), meanwhile Saimiri sp.1 and Saimiri sp.2 shows preference for the low varzea habitats. The average size of the social unit Saimiri sp.2, at the dry season was smaller than of the other forms. In terms of the the vertical strata use, Saimiri vanzolinii occupied lower levels in the dry season, as Saimiri sp.1. All forms occupied lower strata during the wet season. The initialization frequencies of “cackle” vocalization showed differences among the three groups, where Saimiri vanzolinii < Saimiri sp.1 < Saimiri sp.2. The results suggest that ecological segregation of Saimiri vanzolinii from the other forms occur mostly by the habitat partitioning. The medium size of the social unit of Saimiri sp.2 suggests that this species is ecologically different from the other forms. Differences between Saimiri sp.1 and Saimiri sp.2 were observed on the size of their social units, vertical use of space and high “cackle” vocalization initialisation frequencies. The areas where the Saimiri forms are present in the focal Mamirauá Reserve area probably show different paleogeographic histories, offering distinct resources for each taxon. Field studies about vegetation aspects, geoprocessing and feeding ecology must be carried out in the area to allow the understanding of the ecological and behavioural differences that could act upon the distribution of Saimiri and other primate species.Uma das dez espécies de primatas presentes na Reserva Mamirauá (RDSM), Saimiri vanzolinii, possui alguns limites de sua distribuição ainda indefinidos. Considera-se sua área de distribuição como uma das menores dentre os primatas neotropicais, com cerca de 950 Km². Duas outras formas presentes do gênero Saimiri ainda não têm a sua taxonomia esclarecida. O objetivo principal deste estudo foi determinar características ecológicas e comportamentais que possam atuar como mecanismos de isolamento reprodutivo entre as formas de Saimiri na área da RDSM. Foram amostradas diversas áreas na RDSM, próximas às margens de rios e canais, coincidindo com as bordas da distribuição de S. vanzolinii. Ao longo do trajeto foram marcadas coordenadas geográficas no GPS. Em todos os pontos com presença de unidades sociais de Saimiri foram identificados a localidade, a forma de Saimiri, o número de indivíduos, hábitat, marca d’água e primatas associados. As vocalizações do tipo “cackle” foram gravadas oportunamente. Foram percorridos 218 Km, registrando-se 328 unidades sociais do gênero: 41% de Saimiri vanzolinii, 30% de Saimiri sp.1 e 29% de Saimiri sp.2. Um dos animais. Áreas de simpatria e sintopia também foram localizadas. Saimiri vanzolinii ocupa uma área com 106 Km² a menos do que o conhecido, abrangendo apenas 870 Km², o que confirma a menor área de distribuição de um primata neotropical. Dentre os resultados mais relevantes que podem determinar o isolamento reprodutivo entre as social, uso do estrato vertical e freqüências máximas da vocalização “cackle”. Saimiri tamanho médio de unidade social de Saimiri sp.2, na estação da seca, foi menor que para as outras formas. Quanto ao uso do estrato vertical, Saimiri vanzolinii ocupou níveis mais baixos, na estação da seca, do que Saimiri sp.1. Todas as formas ocuparam estratos mais baixos na estação da cheia. As freqüências máximas da vocalização “cackle” apresentaram diferenças entre as três formas, sendo Saimiri vanzolinii <Saimiri sp.1 < Saimiri sp.2. Os resultados apresentados demonstram que a separação ecológica de Saimiri vanzolinii das outras formas parece ocorrer principalmente através do uso diferenciado do hábitat. O tamanho médio de unidade social torna Saimiri sp.2 ecologicamente diferente das outras formas. Diferenças entre Saimiri sp.1 e Saimiri sp.2 foram constatadas no tamanho de unidade social, uso vertical e freqüências máximas da vocalização “cackle”. As áreas onde estão distribuídas as formas de Saimiri na área focal da RDSM provavelmente apresentam diferenças paleogeográficas entre si, de modo que oferecem recursos distintos para cada táxon. Estudos de campo envolvendo aspectos vegetacionais, de geoprocessamento e de ecologia alimentar devem ser realizados naquela área para que se compreenda que tipos de diferenças podem estar atuando na distribuição de Saimiri e de outros primatas

Os macacos-de-cheiro (Saimiri spp.) da Reserva Mamirauá: da descrição de uma espécie à consolidação de uma pesquisa de longo prazo /The squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) of Mamirauá Reserve

A Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá (RDSM) é considerada a maior área protegida brasileira dedicada à conservação da biodiversidade em florestas alagadas. Apesar de apresentar uma das maiores riquezas de primatas registradas para uma unidade de conservação na Amazônia, estudos em primatologia na RDSM ainda são incipientes. O macaco-de-cheiro-de-cabeça-preta (Saimiri vanzolinii) foi descrito em 1985, mas os primeiros estudos iniciaram mais de duas décadas anos depois. A espécie apresenta forte endemismo, e sua distribuição não ultrapassa 870km², sendo considerada vulnerável à extinção. Outras duas espécies de macaco-de-cheiro (S. cassiquiarensis e S. macrodon) ocorrem na área, apresentando peripatria com S. vanzolinii, incluindo zonas de contato nas regiões limítrofes. Ambas as espécies apresentam amplas distribuições geográficas e são consideradas menos preocupantes ao risco de extinção. Estudos filogenéticos determinaram que os três taxa de Saimiri são considerados espécies válidas. Análises bioacústicas e morfológicas corroboraram o estudo anterior, demonstrando diferenciação entre as espécies. O interesse em investigar as razões de S. vanzolinii apresentar uma distribuição extremamente restrita foi o principal motivador para iniciar esta pesquisa de longo prazo. Aspectos relacionados a ecologia, comportamento, taxonomia, genética e biogeografia histórica são essenciais para a compreensão do atual padrão de distribuição, bem como para o planejamento de estratégias de conservação, especialmente de S. vanzolinii. Estudos envolvendo a diferenciação da composição florística entre as áreas de Saimiri, bem como a disponibilidade de recursos alimentares e o uso destes na dieta tem sido desenvolvidos na área. Essas questões ajudarão a compreender se processos evolutivos, como o de exclusão competitiva, podem estar pressionando S. vanzolinii e, consequentemente, contribuindo para um processo natural de extinção da espécie. A maior preocupação refere-se a alguns modelos de mudanças climáticas, que apontam o aumento da intensidade e frequência de grandes cheias para a região do médio rio Solimões. Além disto, o corte seletivo de espécies madeireiras pode contribuir para alterações no ambiente. Acredita-se que a associação destes dois fatores poderão resultar em perda de habitat significativa para S. vanzolinii, aumentando seu risco de extinção. A aplicação de biotecnologias de reprodução deve ser considerada como alternativa para no manejo ex-situ da espécie. ABSTRACT The Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (MSDR) is the largest protected area dedicated to the conservation of biodiversity in floodplain forests. Primate richness there is one of the highest in an Amazonian protected area, but primatological studies are still incipient. The black-headed squirrel monkey (Saimiri vanzolinii) was described in 1985, but the first studies on the species only began more than two decades later. This ‘Vulnerable’ species is endemic to the area, and its geographic distribution is only 870km². Two other squirrel monkeys (S. cassiquiarensis and S. macrodon) occur in the area, and have peripatric distributions with S. vanzolinii, including contact zones on the bordering regions. These peripatric species have large geographic distributions and their conservation status is “Least Concern”. Phylogenetic studies have determined that the three Saimiri taxa are considered valid species. Bioacoustic and morphological analyses corroborated the previous study, demonstrating differentiation between the species. The main incentive for starting a long-term research was program was interest in investigating the reasons for S. vanzolinii’s limited range. Aspects related to ecology, behavior, taxonomy, and phylogenetic and historical biogeography are essential to understand the current pattern of geographic distribution of the squirrel monkeys in Mamirauá. These aspects are also important in the planning of conservation strategies, especially for S. vanzolinii. Studies being conducted in the MSDR are focusing on the floristic communities comprising the ranges of these species, and availability of food sources and their presence in the diet. These questions will help us understand whether evolutionary processes, such as competitive exclusion, might be affecting S. vanzolinii and consequently contributing to its natural extinction process. The major concern about the species relates to climate change, with models indicating an increase in the intensity and frequency of flooding in the region of the middle Rio Solimões. Logging in the region may also be contributing to environmental changes. The association between these two factors could result in habitat loss for S. vanzolinii, increasing its risk of extinction. Management of ex situ breeding colonies of S. vanzolinii should be considered as an additional conservation strategy. RESUMEN Los monos ardilla (Saimiri) de la Reserva Mamirauá: de la descripción de uma especie a la consolidación de una investigación a largo plazo. La Reserva de Desarrollo Sustentable Mamirauá (RDSM) es considerada la mayor área protegida brasileña dedicada a la conservación de la biodiversidad en selvas inundadas. A pesar de presentar una de las mayores riquezas de primates registradas para una unidad de conservación en la Amazonia, estudios con primates en la RDSM todavía son escasos. El mono ardilla Saimiri vanzolinii fue descrito en 1985, pero los primeros estudios iniciaron más de dos décadas después. La especie presenta endemismo fuerte, y su distribución no rebasa los 870km2, siendo considerada vulnerable a la extinción. Otras dos especies de monos ardilla (S. cassiquiarensis y S. macrodon) ocurren en el área, presentando peripatría con S. vanzolinii, incluyendo zonas de contacto en las regiones limítrofes. Ambas especies presentan amplia distribución geográfica y son consideradas menos preocupantes de riesgo de extinción. Estudios filogenéticos determinaron que los tres taxones de Saimiri son considerados espécies válidas. Análisis bioacústicos y morfológicos corroboraron el estudio anterior, demostrando diferenciación entre las especies. El interés en investigar las razones de que S. vanzolinii presente una distribución extremadamente restringida fue el principal motivador para iniciar esta investigación a largo plazo. Aspectos relacionados a la ecología, comportamiento, taxonomía, genética y biogeografía histórica son esenciales para la comprensión del actual patrón de distribución, así como para la planeación de estrategias de conservación, especialmente de S. vanzolinii. Estudios involucrando la diferenciación de la composición florística entre las áreas de Saimiri, así como la disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios y el uso de estos en la dieta, han sido desarrollados en el área. Estas cuestiones ayudarán a comprender si procesos evolutivos, como el de exclusión competitiva, pueden estar presionando S. vanzolinii y, consecuentemente, contribuyendo para un proceso natural de extinción de la especie. La mayor preocupación se refiere a algunos modelos de mudanzas climáticas que apuntan el aumento de la intensidad y frecuencia de grandes inundaciones para la región del medio río Solimões. Aunado a esto, el corte selectivo de especies maderables puede contribuir para alteraciones en el ambiente. Se cree que la asociación de estos dos factores podrá resultar en la perdida significativa de hábitat para S. vanzolinii, aumentando su riesgo de extinción

Impactos da Pandemia de Covid-19 no Segmento Ecoturístico no Estado do Amazonas, Brasil

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected tourism worldwide. This paper examines the impacts of pandemic on companies and professionals related to ecotourism in the state of Amazonas, Brazil. For this purpose, we sent online structured questionnaire to workers in the sector, whose participation was voluntary and anonymous. We had 44 responses from seven macro-regions in the state, most of which were guides and workers in the market for over 15 years. For 91% of respondents, the pandemic totally affected personal or company turnover. Strategies to minimize impacts were adopted in 97% of cases, such as cancellation or rescheduling. The turnover forecast for the remainder of 2020 was very high for 38.6% of respondents. The budget recovery forecast is of at least two years for 43.2% of the cases. The professionals related to ecotourism in Amazonas had their activities affected and the perspective is for a slow recovery, resulting in vulnerability for the activity. Brazil's current image abroad, referring to the weak implementation of actions to mitigate the effects of the pandemic, represents a risk to the activity in Amazonas. Public policies are of utmost importance to recover the ecotourism and the valorization of the different actors and companies related to this tourist segment. Keywords: Amazon; Coronavirus; Social isolation; Protected area; Tourism.La pandemia de COVID-19 ha afectado al turismo del mundo entero. Este artículo evalúa los impactos de la pandemia en empresas y profesionales del ecoturismo en el estado de Amazonas, Brasil. Para esto, enviamos un cuestionario estructurado online para trabajadores del sector, cuya participación fue anónima y voluntaria. Obtuvimos 44 respuestas procedentes de siete macrorregiones de Estado. La mayoría fue compuesta por guías y trabajadores activos en el mercado hace más de 15 años.  Para el 91% de los encuestados la pandemia afectó totalmente la facturación personal o de la empresa. Estrategias para minimizar los impactos fueron adoptadas en el 97% de los casos, como la opción de cancelación o la alteración de fecha. Para el 38,6% de los encuestados la previsión de la facturación para el restante del 2020, era muy alta. La previsión de recuperación presupuestaria es de al menos dos años para el 43,2% de los casos. Los profesionales de ecoturismo en Amazonas fueron afectados en sus actividades y la perspectiva es de una lenta recuperación y una situación de vulnerabilidad. La actual imagen de Brasil en el exterior, referente a la escasa implementación de acciones mitigadoras de los efectos de la pandemia, representa un riesgo para las actividades en el Amazonas. Políticas públicas son esenciales para la recuperación del ecoturismo y para la valorización de los diferentes actores y empresas relacionados con este segmento turístico. Palabras clave: Aislamiento social; Amazonas; Coronavirus; Turismo; Unidad de Conservación.A pandemia de COVID-19 afetou o turismo no mundo inteiro. Este artigo avalia os impactos da pandemia em empresas e profissionais relacionados ao ecoturismo no estado do Amazonas, Brasil. Para tanto, enviamos um questionário estruturado online para trabalhadores do setor, cuja participação foi voluntária e anônima. Obtivemos 44 respostas oriundas de sete macrorregiões do Estado, sendo a maioria composta por guias e trabalhadores atuantes no mercado há mais de 15 anos. Para 91% dos respondentes, a pandemia afetou totalmente o faturamento pessoal ou da empresa. Estratégias para minimizar os impactos foram adotadas em 97% dos casos, como cancelamento ou remarcação de data. A previsão de faturamento no restante de 2020 era muito alta para 38,6% dos respondentes. A previsão de recuperação orçamentária é de ao menos dois anos para 43,2% dos casos. Os profissionais ligados ao ecoturismo no Amazonas foram afetados em suas atividades e a perspectiva é de uma recuperação lenta, acarretando vulnerabilidade da atividade. A atual imagem do Brasil no exterior, referente à fraca implementação de ações mitigadoras dos efeitos da pandemia, representa um risco para a atividade no Amazonas. Políticas públicas são essenciais para a recuperação do ecoturismo e para a valorização dos diferentes atores e empreendimentos relacionados a este segmento turístico.  Palavras-chave: Amazônia. Coronavírus; Isolamento Social; Turismo; Unidade de Conservação

Projeto macacos urbanos: ocorrência e distribuição do bugio-ruivo (Alouatta guariba clamitans) em Porto Alegre - etapa 2 - resultados preliminares

30