The build-up, configuration, and dynamical sensitivity of the Eurasian ice-sheet complex to Late Weichselian climatic and oceanic forcing

The Eurasian ice-sheet complex (EISC) was the third largest ice mass during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), after the Antarctic and North American ice sheets. Despite its global significance, a comprehensive account of its evolution from independent nucleation centres to its maximum extent is conspicuously lacking. Here, a first-order, thermomechanical model, robustly constrained by empirical evidence, is used to investigate the dynamics of the EISC throughout its build-up to its maximum configuration. The ice flow model is coupled to a reference climate and applied at 10 km spatial resolution across a domain that includes the three main spreading centres of the Celtic, Fennoscandian and Barents Sea ice sheets. The model is forced with the NGRIP palaeo-isotope curve from 37 ka BP onwards and model skill is assessed against collated flowsets, marginal moraines, exposure ages and relative sea-level history. The evolution of the EISC to its LGM configuration was complex and asynchronous; the western, maritime margins of the Fennoscandian and Celtic ice sheets responded rapidly and advanced across their continental shelves by 29 ka BP, yet the maximum aerial extent (5.48 × 106 km2) and volume (7.18 × 106 km3) of the ice complex was attained some 6 ka later at c. 22.7 ka BP. This maximum stand was short-lived as the North Sea and Atlantic margins were already in retreat whilst eastern margins were still advancing up until c. 20 ka BP. High rates of basal erosion are modelled beneath ice streams and outlet glaciers draining the Celtic and Fennoscandian ice sheets with extensive preservation elsewhere due to frozen subglacial conditions, including much of the Barents and Kara seas. Here, and elsewhere across the Norwegian shelf and North Sea, high pressure subglacial conditions would have promoted localised gas hydrate formation

The glacial geomorphology of the western cordilleran ice sheet and Ahklun ice cap, Southern Alaska

During the late Wisconsinan, Southern Alaska was covered by two large ice masses; the western arm of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet and the Ahklun Mountains Ice Cap. Compared to the other ice sheets that existed during this period (e.g. the British-Irish, Laurentide and Fennoscandian ice sheets), little is known about the geomorphology they left behind. This limits our understanding of their flow pattern and retreat. Here we present systematic mapping of the glacial geomorphology of the two ice masses which existed in Southern Alaska. Due to spatially variable data availability, mapping was conducted using digital elevation models and satellite images of varying resolutions. Offshore, we map the glacial geomorphology using available bathymetric data. For the first time, we document >5000 subglacial lineations, recording ice flow direction. The distribution of moraines is presented, as well as features related to glacial meltwater drainage patterns (eskers and meltwater channels). Prominent troughs were also mapped on Alaska's continental shelf. This map provides the data required for a glacial inversion of these palaeo-ice masses

Nunataks as barriers to ice flow : implications for palaeo ice sheet reconstructions

Funding: This research has been supported by the Vetenskapsrådet (grant no. 2016-04422), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (grant no. 1158-365737614), the National Science Foundation (grant no. OPP-1542930), and the Norsk Polarinstitutt (grant no. 2015/38/7/NK/ihs).Numerical models predict that discharge from the polar ice sheets will become the largest contributor to sea-level rise over the coming centuries. However, the predicted amount of ice discharge and associated thinning depends on how well ice sheet models reproduce glaciological processes, such as ice flow in regions of large topographic relief, where ice flows around bedrock summits (i.e. nunataks) and through outlet glaciers. The ability of ice sheet models to capture long-term ice loss is best tested by comparing model simulations against geological data. A benchmark for such models is ice surface elevation change, which has been constrained empirically at nunataks and along margins of outlet glaciers using cosmogenic exposure dating. However, the usefulness of this approach in quantifying ice sheet thinning relies on how well such records represent changes in regional ice surface elevation. Here we examine how ice surface elevations respond to the presence of strong topographic relief that acts as an obstacle by modelling ice flow around and between idealised nunataks during periods of imposed ice sheet thinning. We find that, for realistic Antarctic conditions, a single nunatak can exert an impact on ice thickness over 20 km away from its summit, with its most prominent effect being a local increase (decrease) of the ice surface elevation of hundreds of metres upstream (downstream) of the obstacle. A direct consequence of this differential surface response for cosmogenic exposure dating is a delay in the time of bedrock exposure upstream relative to downstream of a nunatak summit. A nunatak elongated transversely to ice flow is able to increase ice retention and therefore impose steeper ice surface gradients, while efficient ice drainage through outlet glaciers produces gentler gradients. Such differences, however, are not typically captured by continent-wide ice sheet models due to their coarse grid resolutions. Their inability to capture site-specific surface elevation changes appears to be a key reason for the observed mismatches between the timing of ice-free conditions from cosmogenic exposure dating and model simulations. We conclude that a model grid refinement over complex topography and information about sample position relative to ice flow near the nunatak are necessary to improve data–model comparisons of ice surface elevation and therefore the ability of models to simulate ice discharge in regions of large topographic relief.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Deglaciation of Fennoscandia

To provide a new reconstruction of the deglaciation of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet, in the form of calendar-year time-slices, which are particularly useful for ice sheet modelling, we have compiled and synthesized published geomorphological data for eskers, ice-marginal formations, lineations, marginal meltwater channels, striae, ice-dammed lakes, and geochronological data from radiocarbon, varve, optically-stimulated luminescence, and cosmogenic nuclide dating. This 25 is summarized as a deglaciation map of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet with isochrons marking every 1000 years between 22 and 13 cal kyr BP and every hundred years between 11.6 and final ice decay after 9.7 cal kyr BP. Deglaciation patterns vary across the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet domain, reflecting differences in climatic and geomorphic settings as well as ice sheet basal thermal conditions and terrestrial versus marine margins. For example, the ice sheet margin in the high-precipitation coastal setting of the western sector responded sensitively to climatic variations leaving a detailed record of prominent moraines and ice-marginal deposits in many fjords and coastal valleys. Retreat rates across the southern sector differed between slow retreat of the terrestrial margin in western and southern Sweden and rapid retreat of the calving ice margin in the Baltic Basin. Our reconstruction is consistent with much of the published research. However, the synthesis of a large amount of existing and new data support refined reconstructions in some areas. For example, we locate the LGM extent of the ice sheet in northwestern Russia further east than previously suggested and conclude that it occurred at a later time than the rest of the ice sheet, at around 17-15 cal kyr BP, and propose a slightly different chronology of moraine formation over southern Sweden based on improved correlations of moraine segments using new LiDAR data and tying the timing of moraine formation to Greenland ice core cold stages. Retreat rates vary by as much as an order of magnitude in different sectors of the ice sheet, with the lowest rates on the high-elevation and maritime Norwegian margin. Retreat rates compared to the climatic information provided by the Greenland ice core record show a general correspondence between retreat rate and climatic forcing, although a close match between retreat rate and climate is unlikely because of other controls, such as topography and marine versus terrestrial margins. Overall, the time slice reconstructions of Fennoscandian Ice Sheet deglaciation from 22 to 9.7 cal kyr BP provide an important dataset for understanding the contexts that underpin spatial and temporal patterns in retreat of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet, and are an important resource for testing and refining ice sheet models

The glacial geomorphology of western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica

Reconstructing the response of present-day ice sheets to past global climate change is important for constraining and refining the numerical models which forecast future contributions of these ice sheets to sea-level change. Mapping landforms is an essential step in reconstructing glacial histories. Here we present a new map of glacial landforms and deposits on nunataks in western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Nunataks are mountains or ridges that currently protrude through the ice sheet and may provide evidence that they have been wholly or partly covered by ice, thus indicating a formerly more extensive (thicker) ice sheet. The map was produced through a combination of mapping from Worldview satellite imagery and ground validation. The sub-metre spatial resolution of the satellite imagery enabled mapping with unprecedented detail. Ten landform categories have been mapped, and the landform distributions provide evidence constraining spatial patterns of a previously thicker ice sheet

The extreme yet transient nature of glacial erosion

Ice can sculpt extraordinary landscapes, yet the efficacy of, and controls governing, glacial erosion on geological timescales remain poorly understood and contended, particularly across Polar continental shields. Here, we assimilate geophysical data with modelling of the Eurasian Ice Sheet — the third largest Quaternary ice mass that spanned 49°N to 82°N — to decipher its erosional footprint during the entire last ~100 ka glacial cycle. Our results demonstrate extreme spatial and temporal heterogeneity in subglacial erosion, with rates ranging from 0 to 5 mm a−1 and a net volume equating to ~130,000 km3 of bedrock excavated to depths of ~190 m. A hierarchy of environmental controls ostensibly underpins this complex signature: lithology, topography and climate, though it is basal thermodynamics that ultimately regulates erosion, which can be variously protective, pervasive, or, highly selective. Our analysis highlights the remarkable yet fickle nature of glacial erosion — critically modulated by transient ice-sheet dynamics — with its capacity to impart a profound but piecemeal geological legacy across mid- and high latitudes

Ice surface changes during recent glacial cycles along the Jutulstraumen and Penck Trough ice streams in western Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica

Reconstructing past ice-sheet surface changes is key to testing and improving ice-sheet models. Data constraining the past behaviour of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet are sparse, limiting our understanding of its response to past, present and future climate change. Here, we report the first cosmogenic multi-nuclide (10Be, 26Al, 36Cl) data from bedrock and erratics on nunataks along the Jutulstraumen and Penck Trough ice streams in western Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica. Spanning elevations between 741 and 2394 m above sea level, the samples have apparent exposure ages between 2 ka and 5 Ma. The highest-elevation bedrock sample indicates (near-) continuous minimum exposure since the Pliocene, with a low apparent erosion rate of 0.15 ± 0.03 m Ma−1, which is similar to results from eastern Dronning Maud Land. In contrast to studies in eastern Dronning Maud Land, however, our data show clear indications of a thicker-than-present ice sheet within the last glacial cycle, with a thinning of ∼35–120 m during the Holocene (∼2–11 ka). Difficulties in separating suitable amounts of quartz from the often quartz-poor rock-types in the area, and cosmogenic nuclides inherited from exposure prior to the last deglaciation, prevented robust thinning estimates from elevational profiles. Nevertheless, the results clearly demonstrate ice-surface fluctuations of several hundred meters between the current grounding line and the edge of the polar plateau for the last glacial cycle, a constraint that should be considered in future ice-sheet model simulations

Changes in vertical ice extent along the East Antarctic Ice Sheet margin in western Dronning Maud Land – initial field and modelling results of the MAGIC-DML collaboration

Constraining numerical ice sheet models by comparison with observational data is crucial to address the interactions between cryosphere and climate at a wide range of scales. Such models are tested and refined by comparing model predictions of past ice geometries with field-based reconstructions from geological, geomorphological, and ice core data. However, for the East Antarctic Ice sheet, there is a critical gap in the empirical data necessary to reconstruct changes in ice sheet geometry in the Dronning Maud Land (DML) region. In addition, there is poor control on the regional climate history of the ice sheet margin, because ice-core locations, where detailed reconstructions of climate history exist, are located on high inland domes. This leaves numerical models ofregional glaciation history in this near-coastal area largely unconstrained. MAGIC-DML is an ongoing Swedish-US-Norwegian-German-UK collaboration with a focus on improvingice sheet models of the western DML margin by combining advances in modeling with filling critical data gaps regarding the timing and pattern of ice-surface changes. A combination of geomorphological mapping using remote sensing data, field observations, cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure dating, and numerical ice sheetmodeling are being used in an iterative manner to produce a comprehensive reconstruction of the glacial historyof western DML. Here, we present an overview of the project, field evidence for formerly higher ice surfaces and in-situ cosmogenic nuclide measurements from the 2016/17 expedition. Preliminary field evidence indicate that interior sectors of DML have experienced a general decrease in ice sheet thickness since the late Miocene, with potential episodes of increasing thickness in the late Pleistocene (700-300 ka, 250-75 ka). To aid in interpreting these field data, new high-resolution ice sheet model reconstructions, constraining ice sheet configurations during key episodes, are presented

Mid-Pleistocene ice sheet fluctuations from cosmogenic nuclide field constraints in western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica

The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) is generally assumed to have been relatively insensitive to Quaternary climat echange. However, recent studies have shown potential instabilities in coastal, marine sectors of the EAIS. In addition, long-term climate reconstructions and modelling experiments indicate the potential for significant changes in ice volume and ice sheet configuration since the Pliocene. Hence, more empirical evidence for ice surface and ice volume changes is required to discriminate between contrasting inferences. MAGIC-DML is an ongoing Swedish-US-Norwegian-German-UK collaboration focused on improving ice sheetm odels by filling critical data gaps that exist in our knowledge of the timing and pattern of ice surface changes along the western Dronning Maud Land (DML) margin and combining this with advances in numerical techniques. As part of the project, field studies in the 2016/17 and 2017/18 austral summers targeted selected sites spanning accessible altitudes in the Heimefrontfjella, Vestfjella, Ahlmannryggen, Borgmassivet, and Kirwanveggen nunatakranges for in situcosmogenic nuclide sampling. Comparing concentrations of nuclides with widely differing half-lives in bedrock and erratics from a range of altitudes above modern ice surfaces can provide information on ice sheet fluctuations and complex burial and exposure histories, and thus, past configurations of non-erosive ice. Quartz-bearing rock types were sampled and analyzed for 10Be (t1/21.4 My),14C (t1/25.7 ky),26Al (t1/2705ky), and 21Ne (stable), and mafic lithologies for36Cl (t1/2301 ky). Results thus far for 3210Be and 26Al isotope pairs complemented with seven21Ne measurements have yielded some consistent patterns of paleoglaciation for the western DML margin. Eight out of fourteen bedrock samples from high-elevation (1700-2238 m a.s.l.) ridges and summits return some of the oldest exposure ages in Antarctica and have consistent 10Be,26Al, and 21Ne minimum apparent exposure ages of 1.8-4.1 Ma. Initial results therefore indicate that parts of the ice sheet marginal to the Antarctic plateau, along the Heimefrontfjella range, generally have experienced a decrease in ice thickness since the late Miocene. Another six bedrock samples (1556-1732 ma.s.l.) fall in the 300-700 ka range, and they all show significant burial. At face value, perhaps this indicates aregional ice sheet surface above 1700 m a.s.l. for much of the Plio-early Pleistocene. All other samples analyzedto date are erratics from lower elevation and more coastal sites (10 from nunataks at 553-1400 m a.s.l., and 6 froma surface moraine at 1385 m a.s.l.), exhibiting ages between 59 and 275 ka, save for two (4 and 6 ka). Whereas almost all of the nunatak erratics (including the young ones) show significant burial durations, five of the six surface moraine samples do not. These 2016/17 field samples are not yet leading to conclusive age constraints but already start to paint a picture of the western DML margin being relatively stable although there was possibly one or more episodes of relatively limited ice thickening during the last 700 ka