Endophytes vs tree pathogens and pests: can they be used as biological control agents to improve tree health?

Like all other plants, trees are vulnerable to attack by a multitude of pests and pathogens. Current control measures for many of these diseases are limited and relatively ineffective. Several methods, including the use of conventional synthetic agro-chemicals, are employed to reduce the impact of pests and diseases. However, because of mounting concerns about adverse effects on the environment and a variety of economic reasons, this limited management of tree diseases by chemical methods is losing ground. The use of biological control, as a more environmentally friendly alternative, is becoming increasingly popular in plant protection. This can include the deployment of soil inoculants and foliar sprays, but the increased knowledge of microbial ecology in the phytosphere, in particular phylloplane microbes and endophytes, has stimulated new thinking for biocontrol approaches. Endophytes are microbes that live within plant tissues. As such, they hold potential as biocontrol agents against plant diseases because they are able to colonize the same ecological niche favoured by many invading pathogens. However, the development and exploitation of endophytes as biocontrol agents will have to overcome numerous challenges. The optimization and improvement of strategies employed in endophyte research can contribute towards discovering effective and competent biocontrol agents. The impact of environment and plant genotype on selecting potentially beneficial and exploitable endophytes for biocontrol is poorly understood. How endophytes synergise or antagonise one another is also an important factor. This review focusses on recent research addressing the biocontrol of plant diseases and pests using endophytic fungi and bacteria, alongside the challenges and limitations encountered and how these can be overcome. We frame this review in the context of tree pests and diseases, since trees are arguably the most difficult plant species to study, work on and manage, yet they represent one of the most important organisms on Earth

Endophytes vs tree pathogens and pests: can they be used as biological control agents to improve tree health?

Like all other plants, trees are vulnerable to attack by a multitude of pests and pathogens. Current control measures for many of these diseases are limited and relatively ineffective. Several methods, including the use of conventional synthetic agro-chemicals, are employed to reduce the impact of pests and diseases. However, because of mounting concerns about adverse effects on the environment and a variety of economic reasons, this limited management of tree diseases by chemical methods is losing ground. The use of biological control, as a more environmentally friendly alternative, is becoming increasingly popular in plant protection. This can include the deployment of soil inoculants and foliar sprays, but the increased knowledge of microbial ecology in the phytosphere, in particular phylloplane microbes and endophytes, has stimulated new thinking for biocontrol approaches. Endophytes are microbes that live within plant tissues. As such, they hold potential as biocontrol agents against plant diseases because they are able to colonize the same ecological niche favoured by many invading pathogens. However, the development and exploitation of endophytes as biocontrol agents will have to overcome numerous challenges. The optimization and improvement of strategies employed in endophyte research can contribute towards discovering effective and competent biocontrol agents. The impact of environment and plant genotype on selecting potentially beneficial and exploitable endophytes for biocontrol is poorly understood. How endophytes synergise or antagonise one another is also an important factor. This review focusses on recent research addressing the biocontrol of plant diseases and pests using endophytic fungi and bacteria, alongside the challenges and limitations encountered and how these can be overcome. We frame this review in the context of tree pests and diseases, since trees are arguably the most difficult plant species to study, work on and manage, yet they represent one of the most important organisms on Earth

Planificación familiar y aborto en Puerto Rico: Explorando opiniones, conocimientos y actitudes

Family planning and the legality of abortion are subjects that generate many debates within society. The positions we assume about these issues are related to our religious beliefs, ethics, culture, history and to the development and implementation of public policy. Puerto Rican society has not study family planning and abortion issues enough. The aim of this study is to explore the knowledge, attitudes and opinions of the Puerto Rican society towards family planning and the policy of United States that required all international non-governmental organizations refrain from performing or promoting abortion services as a method of family planning (México City Policy - MCP). We carried out a mixed-method study with two phases: we conducted a first phase using a qualitative approach with an exploratory design; and a second phase using a quantitative approach with a correlational design. We conducted the study with a convenience sample of 106 adults who reside in Puerto Rico. The findings suggest that neither knowledge nor socio-demographic characteristics are related to the participant's attitude towards family planning, except religious ideology. The findings reflect inconsistencies between knowledge on family planning and the derogation of MCP, and the attitudes towards them. As well, as the literature suggest, the results of the study demonstrate poor knowledge and confusión about the legality of abortion in Puerto Rico.La planificación familiar y la legalidad del aborto son temas que generan muchos debates dentro de la sociedad. Las posturas que asumimos sobre estos asuntos están relacionadas a nuestras creencias religiosas, ética, cultura, historia y al desarrollo e implementación de políticas públicas, entre otros. En la sociedad puertorriqueña se ha estudiado muy poco el tema de la planificación familiar y de la legalidad del aborto. El objetivo de esta investigación es explorar el conocimiento, las actitudes y las opiniones que tiene la sociedad puertorriqueña en torno a la planificación familiar y al uso de los fondos federales que se asignan a los grupos internacionales de planificación familiar que consideran el aborto como una opción (Política de Ciudad de México - PCM). Partiendo de un modelo mixto de investigación, se condujo una primera fase de carácter cualitativo con un alcance exploratorio y una segunda de carácter cuantitativo con un alcance correlacional. Obtuvimos una muestra por disponibilidad de 106 personas adultas que residen en Puerto Rico. De los hallazgos se desprende que ni los conocimientos ni las características socio-demográficas están relacionados a la actitud de las personas hacia la planificación familiar, a excepción de la ideología religiosa. Los hallazgos reflejan incongruencias entre el conocimiento sobre la planificación familiar y la derogación de la PCM, y la actitud hacia las mismas. A su vez, los resultados del estudio sustentan lo indicado en la literatura sobre el pobre conocimiento y el alto grado de confusión acerca de la legalidad del aborto en Puerto Rico