Reflectance of Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) for Xenon Scintillation Light

Gaseous and liquid xenon particle detectors are being used in a number of applications including dark matter search and neutrino-less double beta decay experiments. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is often used in these detectors both as electrical insulator and as a light reflector to improve the efficiency of detection of scintillation photons. However, xenon emits in the vacuum ultraviolet wavelength region (175 nm) where the reflecting properties of PTFE are not sufficiently known. In this work we report on measurements of PTFE reflectance, including its angular distribution, for the xenon scintillation light. Various samples of PTFE, manufactured by different processes (extruded, expanded, skived and pressed) have been studied. The data were interpreted with a physical model comprising both specular and diffuse reflections. The reflectance obtained for these samples ranges from about 47% to 66% for VUV light. Fluoropolymers, namely ETFE, FEP and PFA were also measured

A model of the reflection distribution in the vacuum ultra violet region

A reflection model with three components, a specular spike, a specular lobe and a diffuse lobe is discussed. This model was successfully applied to describe reflection of xenon scintillation light (175 nm) by PTFE and other fluoropolymers and can be used for Monte Carlo simulation and analysis of scintillation detectors. The measured data favors a Trowbridge-Reitz distribution function of ellipsoidal micro-surfaces. The intensity of the coherent reflection increases with increasing angle of incidence, as expected, since the surface appears smoother at grazing angles. The total reflectance obtained for PTFE is about 70% for VUV light at normal incidence in vacuum and estimated to be up to 100% in contact with liquid xenon

O mito da homogeneidade biológica na população paleoíndia de Lagoa Santa: implicações antropológicas

Since their first discovery in 1842-1843, by Peter Lund, the human skeletal remains from Lagoa Santa, Brazil, were destined to influence, substantially, the discussion about the settlement of the Americas, from a biological perspective. Until 1970 several authors have refered to these remains as a homogenous collection, implying that these individuals represented just one biological population or "race". Mello e Alvim (1977; see also Mello e Alvim et al., 1983-1984) was the first to use explicitly the term "homogeneity" as implying a very low intra-population diversity among these late paleoindians. For her, the extremely low diversity among the Lagoa Santa specimens could be explained only by a narrow bottle neck occuring during the occupation of the region, followed by geographic isolation from other contemporary groups. The idea of a extremely low diverse population in ancient Lagoa Santa led some brazilian archeologists to elaborate on the "isolation hypothesis", and to use it to explain local characteristics of material culture and social organization. In this paper we show that even very simple quantification techniques is able to demonstrate that the Lagoa Santa early inhabitants are among the most diverse populations in the planet, as it is normally the case with Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene hunter-gatherers.Desde sua primeira descoberta entre 1842 e 1843, pelo naturalista dinamarquês Peter W. Lund, os remanescentes ósseos humanos de Lagoa Santa, Brasil Central, estavam destinados a impactar de forma indelével os estudos sobre as origens dos primeiros americanos. Entre sua primeira descoberta e a década de 1970, a palavra homogeneidade biológica foi sempre aplicada a esses remanescentes como sinônimo de identidade biológica populacional. Mello e Alvim (1977; ver também Mello e Alvim et al., 1983-1984) associou a esse termo um novo significado: o de que tal população apresentava uma diversidade biológica extremamente reduzida, quando comparada a outras populações humanas, tendo sugerido, a partir daí, que a população antiga de Lagoa Santa teria sido formada originalmente por poucos indivíduos e vivido de forma isolada de outras populações contemporâneas. Essa sugestão teve grande impacto na comunidade arqueológica brasileira, levando alguns arqueólogos a tentar compreender certos aspectos da cultura material e da organização social desses primeiros americanos da perspectiva do isolamento. Neste trabalho demonstramos, com a ajuda de cálculos simples sobre quantificação em antropologia, disponíveis na literatura há pelo menos um século, que a proposta de Mello e Alvim (1977) não resiste nem mesmo a uma análise superficial dos dados disponíveis sobre a variabilidade craniométrica desses primeiros americanos. Contrariamente à proposta daquela autora, a população paleoíndia tardia de Lagoa Santa está entre as populações humanas mundiais mais diversas biologicamente

Human occupation and paleoenvironments in South America: expanding the notion of an “Archaic Gap”

Uma revisão das informações arqueológicas produzidas no Brasil e países vizinhos durante as últimas décadas, aliada a uma análise de estudos paleoambientais recentes, sugerem que durante o Holoceno Médio amplas áreas da América do Sul deixaram de ser ocupadas por grupos humanos. Dados independentes, como datações de esqueletos humanos, estratigrafia de abrigos rochosos e cronologia de sítios arqueológicos a céu aberto convergem para a idéia de que tais áreas foram, no mínimo, fortemente depopuladas. Dados paleoambientais sugerem que eventos de seca constituíram a principal causa por trás das tendências observadas. Nossas conclusões expandem a noção já existente de que estresses climáticos têm um papel importante na conformação de assentamentos humanos em ambientes marginais, como desertos e altitudes elevadas, mostrando que o mesmo pode ocorrer nas terras baixas tropicais e subtropicais.An overview of the archaeological data produced in the last decades for Brazil and neighbouring countries, coupled with a background of recent studies on paleoenvironments, suggests that during the mid-Holocene vast areas of South America ceased to be occupied by human groups. Independent data coming from dated human skeletons, rockshelter stratigraphy, and chronology of open-air sites converge to the idea that these areas were, at least, strongly depopulated. Paleoenvironmental data suggest that dryness events constitute the major cause behind the observed trends. Our conclusions expand the already perceived notion that climatic stresses had a major role in the shaping of human settlement patterns in marginal environments, such as deserts and high-altitude settings, showing that the same can occur in tropical and subtropical lowlands

A origem do homem americano vista a partir da América do Sul: uma ou duas migrações?

Until mid 1990s the prevailing model to explain the early colonization of the Americas rested on the assumption that three different migrations were involved in the process. The first migration would have given rise to most of the modern Native Americans, and is known as "Amerind"; the second migration would have given rise only to the Na-Dene Indians of the northern pacific; while the third would have given rise to the Eskimos and Aleuts. Known as the Three Migrations Model, the model was said to rest on convergent evidences coming from dental morphology, linguistics and the gene pool of living Native Americans. By the time the model was formulated, genetic diversity of living humans was studied by means of gene products, like serum proteins, and not by means of DNA itself. From mid 1990s on, two other models to explain the origin of Native Americans started competing with the Three Migration Model. They are known today as The Two Main Biological Components Model, and The Single Migration Model. The first one rests on the analysis of the cranial morphology of extinct and extant Native Americans along time, while the second has emerged from the study of DNA polymorphisms of living populations, mainly from mitochondrial and Y chromosome DNA sequencing. In other words, evidence coming from cranial morphology and its variation along time sustains that two Northern Asian populations entered the continent: the first one exhibiting a more generalized cranial pattern, and a second one exhibiting a more specialized architecture. On the other hand, the distribution of DNA haplogroups in modern Native American populations is easily explained by the entrance of only one mother population from Northern Asia. In this study we present new evidence that two very distinct cranial morphologies are indeed found among extinct Native Americans along time: a more generalized cranial pattern typifying the first newcomers, known in the literature as Paleoindians (12 to 8 thousand years ago), and a more specialized pattern typifying latter groups, since the Archaic period (Até meados da década de 1990, predominava na literatura especializada que o Novo Mundo teria sido colonizado por três levas distintas, todas com origem no nordeste asiático. Na segunda metade da década, dois modelos alternativos começaram a desfrutar de grande popularidade entre a comunidade acadêmica internacional. O primeiro deles, denominado "Modelo dos Dois Componentes Biológicos Principais", baseado na variabilidade craniométrica de populações nativas americanas extintas, sugere que a América teria sido colonizada por pelo menos duas populações morfologicamente distintas vindas do nordeste asiático. O segundo, gerado por pesquisas sobre a variabilidade do DNA mitocondrial e do cromossomo Y de populações indígenas atuais, defende que o continente americano teria sido colonizado por apenas uma migração, também de origem asiática. Alguns especialistas acreditam que a compatibilização desses dois modelos é simples: as duas morfologias que se sucederam no tempo no Novo Mundo são resultado de um processo microevolutivo local, independente daquele que ocorreu, em paralelo, na Ásia. Uma outra maneira de compatibilizar os dois cenários é assumir que morfologia craniana e linhagens de DNA são entidades evolutivamente independentes, com histórias, modos, tempos e tendências próprias. Este trabalho apresenta novas evidências de que dois padrões morfológicos cranianos de fato se sucederam no Novo Mundo. Um relacionado às populações mais antigas (paleoíndias) e um relacionado a populações arcaicas e agrocerâmicas. Esses resultados são analisados à luz da discussão acima caracterizada

Linear approaches to intramolecular Förster Resonance Energy Transfer probe measurements for quantitative modeling

Numerous unimolecular, genetically-encoded Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) probes for monitoring biochemical activities in live cells have been developed over the past decade. As these probes allow for collection of high frequency, spatially resolved data on signaling events in live cells and tissues, they are an attractive technology for obtaining data to develop quantitative, mathematical models of spatiotemporal signaling dynamics. However, to be useful for such purposes the observed FRET from such probes should be related to a biological quantity of interest through a defined mathematical relationship, which is straightforward when this relationship is linear, and can be difficult otherwise. First, we show that only in rare circumstances is the observed FRET linearly proportional to a biochemical activity. Therefore in most cases FRET measurements should only be compared either to explicitly modeled probes or to concentrations of products of the biochemical activity, but not to activities themselves. Importantly, we find that FRET measured by standard intensity-based, ratiometric methods is inherently non-linear with respect to the fraction of probes undergoing FRET. Alternatively, we find that quantifying FRET either via (1) fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) or (2) ratiometric methods where the donor emission intensity is divided by the directly-excited acceptor emission intensity (denoted R<sub>alt</sub>) is linear with respect to the fraction of probes undergoing FRET. This linearity property allows one to calculate the fraction of active probes based on the FRET measurement. Thus, our results suggest that either FLIM or ratiometric methods based on R<sub>alt</sub> are the preferred techniques for obtaining quantitative data from FRET probe experiments for mathematical modeling purpose

Testing Evolutionary and Dispersion Scenarios for the Settlement of the New World

Background: Discussion surrounding the settlement of the New World has recently gained momentum with advances in molecular biology, archaeology and bioanthropology. Recent evidence from these diverse fields is found to support different colonization scenarios. The currently available genetic evidence suggests a ""single migration'' model, in which both early and later Native American groups derive from one expansion event into the continent. In contrast, the pronounced anatomical differences between early and late Native American populations have led others to propose more complex scenarios, involving separate colonization events of the New World and a distinct origin for these groups. Methodology/Principal Findings: Using large samples of Early American crania, we: 1) calculated the rate of morphological differentiation between Early and Late American samples under three different time divergence assumptions, and compared our findings to the predicted morphological differentiation under neutral conditions in each case; and 2) further tested three dispersal scenarios for the colonization of the New World by comparing the morphological distances among early and late Amerindians, East Asians, Australo-Melanesians and early modern humans from Asia to geographical distances associated with each dispersion model. Results indicate that the assumption of a last shared common ancestor outside the continent better explains the observed morphological differences between early and late American groups. This result is corroborated by our finding that a model comprising two Asian waves of migration coming through Bering into the Americas fits the cranial anatomical evidence best, especially when the effects of diversifying selection to climate are taken into account. Conclusions: We conclude that the morphological diversity documented through time in the New World is best accounted for by a model postulating two waves of human expansion into the continent originating in East Asia and entering through Beringia.Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Cientifico y Tecnologico (FONDECYT)[11070091]Fundacao de Amparo a Ciencia do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP)[04/01253-0]Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa (CNPq)[301126-04.6]Max Planck GesellschaftEVAN Marie Curie Research Training Network[MRTN-CT-019564

New measurement of neutron capture resonances of 209Bi

The neutron capture cross section of Bi209 has been measured at the CERN n TOF facility by employing the pulse-height-weighting technique. Improvements over previous measurements are mainly because of an optimized detection system, which led to a practically negligible neutron sensitivity. Additional experimental sources of systematic error, such as the electronic threshold in the detectors, summing of gamma-rays, internal electron conversion, and the isomeric state in bismuth, have been taken into account. Gamma-ray absorption effects inside the sample have been corrected by employing a nonpolynomial weighting function. Because Bi209 is the last stable isotope in the reaction path of the stellar s-process, the Maxwellian averaged capture cross section is important for the recycling of the reaction flow by alpha-decays. In the relevant stellar range of thermal energies between kT=5 and 8 keV our new capture rate is about 16% higher than the presently accepted value used for nucleosynthesis calculations. At this low temperature an important part of the heavy Pb-Bi isotopes are supposed to be synthesized by the s-process in the He shells of low mass, thermally pulsing asymptotic giant branch stars. With the improved set of cross sections we obtain an s-process fraction of 19(3)% of the solar bismuth abundance, resulting in an r-process residual of 81(3)%. The present (n,gamma) cross-section measurement is also of relevance for the design of accelerator driven systems based on a liquid metal Pb/Bi spallation target.Comment: 10 pages, 5figures, recently published in Phys. Rev.

Measurement of the (90,91,92,93,94,96)Zr(n,gamma) and (139)La(n,gamma) cross sections at n_TOF

Open AccessNeutron capture cross sections of Zr and La isotopes have important implications in the field of nuclear astrophysics as well as in the nuclear technology. In particular the Zr isotopes play a key role for the determination of the neutron density in the He burning zone of the Red Giant star, while the (139)La is important to monitor the s-process abundances from Ba up to Ph. Zr is also largely used as structural materials of traditional and advanced nuclear reactors. The nuclear resonance parameters and the cross section of (90,91,92,93,94,96)Zr and (139)La have been measured at the n_TOF facility at CERN. Based on these data the capture resonance strength and the Maxwellian-averaged cross section were calculated