Monilinia fructicola intercepted on Prunus spp. imported from Spain into South Africa between 2010 and 2020

The international trade of plants and their products, such as fresh fruits, can facilitate the introduction and spread of foreign pests and diseases. We examined South Africa’s import of stone fruits (Prunus spp.) as a pathway for introducing Monilinia fructicola (G. Wint.) Honey and document recommended phytosanitary measures to deal with the risk associated with its exportation into the country. Fresh fruits of Prunus spp. are imported from various countries. The current study provides a report on 10 years (2010–2020) importation of Prunus spp. from Spain to South Africa with associated cases of M. fructicola. We also detail the current management measures for imported stone fruits from Spain to South Africa. We report 18 M. fructicola detections that were found during the study period. The number of detections presents enough trends to determine the level of phytosanitary concerns regarding the importation of Prunus spp. fresh fruit from Spain, which cannot be neglected. M. fructicola is an economically important brown rot on many fruit hosts and potentially threatens agricultural and horticultural industries, the environment, and biodiversity in South Africa. The importation of Prunus spp. requires intensive management strategies for M. fructicola, as pathogens may pose a major phytosanitary concern because it could thrive and reproduce in various environmental conditions and on various host plants in South Africa. Therefore, if M. fructicola establishes in South Africa, its impacts will have consequences for different key socio-economic sectors, including the agricultural industry. Significance:• Monilinia fructicola is a pest of quarantine significance for South Africa.• If not managed properly, the importation of Prunus spp. with associated M. fructicola will be a significant phytosanitary concern that could cause severe economic impacts on the South African agricultural industry

Thermoregulatory traits combine with range shifts to alter the future of montane ant assemblages.

Predicting and understanding the biological response to future climate change is a pressing challenge for humanity. In the 21st century, many species will move into higher latitudes and higher elevations as the climate warms. In addition, the relative abundances of species within local assemblages is likely to change. Both effects have implications for how ecosystems function. Few biodiversity forecasts, however, take account of both shifting ranges and changing abundances. We provide a novel analysis predicting the potential changes to assemblage level relative abundances in the 21st century. We use an established relationship linking ant abundance and their colour and size traits to temperature and UV-B to predict future abundance changes. We also predict future temperature driven range shifts and use these to alter the available species pool for our trait-mediated abundance predictions. We do this across three continents under a low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP2.6) and a business-as-usual scenario (RCP8.5). Under RCP2.6, predicted changes to ant assemblages by 2100 are moderate. On average, species richness will increase by 26%, while species composition and relative abundance structure will be 26% and 30% different, respectively, compared with modern assemblages. Under RCP8.5, however, highland assemblages face almost a tripling of species richness and compositional and relative abundance changes of 66% and 77%. Critically, we predict that future assemblages could be reorganised in terms of which species are common and which are rare: future highland assemblages will not simply comprise upslope shifts of modern lowland assemblages. These forecasts reveal the potential for radical change to montane ant assemblages by the end of the 21st century if temperature increases continue. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating trait-environment relationships into future biodiversity predictions. Looking forward, the major challenge is to understand how ecosystem processes will respond to compositional and relative abundance changes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Thermoregulatory traits combine with range shifts to alter the future of montane ant assemblages.

Predicting and understanding the biological response to future climate change is a pressing challenge for humanity. In the 21st century, many species will move into higher latitudes and higher elevations as the climate warms. In addition, the relative abundances of species within local assemblages is likely to change. Both effects have implications for how ecosystems function. Few biodiversity forecasts, however, take account of both shifting ranges and changing abundances. We provide a novel analysis predicting the potential changes to assemblage level relative abundances in the 21st century. We use an established relationship linking ant abundance and their colour and size traits to temperature and UV-B to predict future abundance changes. We also predict future temperature driven range shifts and use these to alter the available species pool for our trait-mediated abundance predictions. We do this across three continents under a low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP2.6) and a business-as-usual scenario (RCP8.5). Under RCP2.6, predicted changes to ant assemblages by 2100 are moderate. On average, species richness will increase by 26%, while species composition and relative abundance structure will be 26% and 30% different, respectively, compared with modern assemblages. Under RCP8.5, however, highland assemblages face almost a tripling of species richness and compositional and relative abundance changes of 66% and 77%. Critically, we predict that future assemblages could be reorganised in terms of which species are common and which are rare: future highland assemblages will not simply comprise upslope shifts of modern lowland assemblages. These forecasts reveal the potential for radical change to montane ant assemblages by the end of the 21st century if temperature increases continue. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating trait-environment relationships into future biodiversity predictions. Looking forward, the major challenge is to understand how ecosystem processes will respond to compositional and relative abundance changes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Ant assemblages have darker and larger members in cold environments

Aim In ectotherms, the colour of an individual's cuticle may have important thermoregulatory and protective consequences. In cool environments, ectotherms should be darker, to maximize heat gain, and larger, to minimize heat loss. Dark colours should also predominate under high UV‐B conditions because melanin offers protection. We test these predictions in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) across space and through time based on a new, spatially and temporally explicit, global‐scale combination of assemblage‐level and environmental data. Location Africa, Australia and South America. Methods We sampled ant assemblages (n = 274) along 14 elevational transects on three continents. Individual assemblages ranged from 250 to 3000 m a.s.l. (minimum to maximum range in summer temperature of 0.5–35 °C). We used mixed‐effects models to explain variation in assemblage cuticle lightness. Explanatory variables were average assemblage body size, temperature and UV‐B irradiation. Annual temporal changes in lightness were examined for a subset of the data. Results Assemblages with large average body sizes were darker in colour than those with small body sizes. Assemblages became lighter in colour with increasing temperature, but darkened again at the highest temperatures when there were high levels of UV‐B. Through time, temperature and body size explained variation in lightness. Both the spatial and temporal models explained c. 50% of the variation in lightness. Main conclusions Our results are consistent with the thermal melanism hypothesis, and demonstrate the importance of considering body size and UV‐B radiation exposure in explaining the colour of insect cuticle. Crucially, this finding is at the assemblage level. Consequently, the relative abundances and identities of ant species that are present in an assemblage can change in accordance with environmental conditions over elevation, latitude and relatively short time spans. These findings suggest that there are important constraints on how ectotherm assemblages may be able to respond to rapidly changing environmental conditions

Climate mediates the effects of disturbance on ant assemblage structure

Many studies have focused on the impacts of climate change on biological assemblages, yet little is known about howclimate interacts with other major anthropogenic influences on biodiversity, such as habitat disturbance. Using a unique global database of 1128 local ant assemblages, we examined whether climate mediates the effects of habitat disturbance on assemblage structure at a global scale. Species richness and evenness were associated positively with temperature, and negatively with disturbance. However, the interaction among temperature, precipitation and disturbance shaped species richness and evenness. The effectwas manifested through a failure of species richness to increase substantially with temperature in transformed habitats at low precipitation. At low precipitation levels, evenness increased with temperature in undisturbed sites, peaked at medium temperatures in disturbed sites and remained low in transformed sites. In warmer climates with lower rainfall, the effects of increasing disturbance on species richness and evenness were akin to decreases in temperature of up to 98C. Anthropogenic disturbance and ongoing climate change may interact in complicated ways to shape the structure of assemblages, with hot, arid environments likely to be at greatest risk. © 2015 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved

Nutritional Composition of Edible Insects Consumed in Africa: A Systematic Review

Edible insects are an important protein rich natural resource that can contribute to resilient food security. Edible insects not only play an important role in traditional diets, but are also an excellent source of protein in traditional dishes in Africa. We systematically searched Web-of-Science and Google Scholar from year 2000–2019 for studies on the consumption of insects and their nutritional composition in Africa, resulting in 98 eligible papers, listing 212 edible insect species from eight orders. These insects were rich in protein, fats, and fibre. The highest protein content was reported for Lepidoptera (range: 20–80%). Coleoptera had the highest carbohydrate content (7–54%), while Lepidoptera had the highest fat content (10–50%). Considering the excellent source of nutrition, and potential socio-economic benefits, from edible insects, they can contribute strongly to improved food security, and rural development in developing countries. In addition, edible insects can be used as a sustainable food source to combat food shortages in the future, for example, providing resilience during times of drought or other climate stressors

Indigenous Knowledge about Consumption of Edible Insects in South Africa

Consumption of edible insects is an indigenous practice that has played an essential role in human nutrition across Africa. The traditional use of insects forms an important part of food culture in Africa, and insects are consumed either as a delicacy, emergency, or staple source of food. However, indigenous knowledge about insect consumption is being lost because recent generations have adopted western methods and paid less attention to traditional practices. We conducted 500 questionnaires in five local municipalities in Kwazulu-Natal (KZN), and 122 questionnaires in four local municipalities in Vhembe district in Limpopo, South Africa, to document indigenous knowledge about edible insects’ consumption, collection, and preparation methods used in Limpopo and KZN. Eight insect species belonging to five insect orders were used as food in Limpopo and KZN, with mopane worms (94%) and termites (70%) being the most preferred species by respondents in Limpopo and KZN, respectively. Ninety-five percent of the respondents occasionally consumed insects in Limpopo, while only 28% did so in KZN. Nutritional benefits and tradition were the main reasons for consuming insects. Edible insects are a nutritious diet and play an important role in people’s livelihoods in rural areas. However, there was a notable decline in entomophagy, particularly in KZN. The decline may be related to occidental acculturation, discomfort associated with eating insects, and declining insect availability. To promote entomophagy, the authorities should encourage people to include edible insects in their diets because of their nutritional value. In addition, edible insect flour should be incorporated in food products such as biscuits, bread, energy bars, cereal, and cookies to promote acceptability

Effect of Long-Term Burning and Mowing Regimes on Ant Communities in a Mesic Grassland

Ecological disturbance is fundamental for grassland management and the maintenance of its biodiversity. Fire and grazing are the primary habitat disturbances influencing the structure and composition of grassland ecosystems, both acting to remove grass biomass. Little is known about the effects of such grass biomass removal on grassland ants, an ecologically dominant faunal group. Our study assesses the response of ant communities to long-term experimental burning and mowing treatments in a South African mesic grassland. The study’s main objectives were (i) to assess the effect of frequency and season of burning and mowing on ant species richness and composition and (ii) to identify indicator species associated with the various grassland management treatments. The experiment included two fully crossed fire treatments: frequency (annual, biennial, and triennial) and season (late winter and after spring rains), along with annual mowing and an undisturbed control. Ants were sampled using pitfall traps in 27 plots, comprising 18 burnt, 6 mown, and 3 controls. The mean species richness in the burnt plots (22.38 ± 3.71) was far higher than in the control (23 ± 2.0) or mown (21.0 ± 2.28) plots. However, the total richness (combining plots) did not vary among treatments. Four of the nine most common species showed a statistically significant response to experimental treatment, but there were no significant treatment effects on overall species composition. Three indicator species (IndVal > 70%) were identified for the control plots, and detector species (IndVal 50–70%) were identified for annual, biennial, and triennial burning treatments. Our findings demonstrate that ant communities in this grassland system are highly resilient to burning and mowing, and that fire promotes diversity at the plot scale. Our identified indicator and detector species can be used as a focus for ongoing monitoring of biodiversity change in our grassland system, including in response to woody expansion

The Role of Edible Insects in Rural Livelihoods, and Identified Challenges in Vhembe District, Limpopo, South Africa

Edible insects are an important natural commodity in rural areas that is used for household consumption and to generate income through trade. As a result, edible-insect trading is a profitable business that provides employment and improves the livelihoods of impoverished rural people. This study aimed at determining the socioeconomic benefits of and reasons for trading insects, and to assess if edible insects are included in economic development strategies in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province, South Africa. We conducted 72 questionnaire interviews targeting traders in 5 towns across the district. Five insect groups belonging to four insect orders are traded in informal markets of the district. Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) were the most traded (42%) edible insects. Unemployment (45%) and the demand for edible insects (34%) were the major reasons for trading insects. Insect trading has numerous benefits; however, the provision of income (60%) and financial support (35%) were stated as the primary benefits. Despite several benefits associated with trading in insects, there are many challenges such as insect spoilage and a decline in the availability of edible insects in the wild. Edible insects play an important role in food security and the rural economy by generating employment opportunities for unemployed traders. Trading in insects is a traditional practice based on indigenous knowledge, which has persisted as an economic practice that improves rural livelihoods by reducing poverty and increases the human dignity of rural citizens. Only four governmental organisations in Limpopo included edible insects in economic development strategies. Trading insects is primarily an informal activity. The government could stimulate the activity and broaden and deepen the community benefits by providing infrastructure, access to harvest areas, financial support, and business training as part of a rural empowerment strategy to end hunger and poverty while creating employment opportunities in rural areas