Factors Affecting the Fire Safety Design of Photovoltaic Installations Under Performance-Based Regulations in Norway

The impact of Photovoltaic (PV) installations on the fire safety of buildings must be considered in all building projects where such energy systems are established. The holistic fire safety of the building largely depends on how the fire safety of the PV installation is considered by the different actors during the design and construction process. Research has therefore been undertaken to study how performance-based regulations in combination with the lack of national guidelines affect the overall fire safety considerations for PV installations in Norway. Four factors were found to govern to which extent PV installations are emphasised in the fire safety design phase: (1) whether the building was first of its kind as a pioneering building, (2) whether the building was built before or after the publication of the 2018 revision of the norm NEK 400, (3) The level of knowledge and experience of the fire safety consultant, which in turn affects the use of performance-based engineering tools and the level of detailing in the design and construction phases, and (4) The degree of integration in the building. The main goal of the study is to give an insight and a contribution to the development of in-depth knowledge on how fire safety design for PV installations on buildings is handled in Norway, which may also be relevant to other countries with similar performance-based regulations.publishedVersio

Current Wildland Fire Patterns and Challenges in Europe : A Synthesis of National Perspectives

Changes in climate, land use, and land management impact the occurrence and severity of wildland fires in many parts of the world. This is particularly evident in Europe, where ongoing changes in land use have strongly modified fire patterns over the last decades. Although satellite data by the European Forest Fire Information System provide large-scale wildland fire statistics across European countries, there is still a crucial need to collect and summarize in-depth local analysis and understanding of the wildland fire condition and associated challenges across Europe. This article aims to provide a general overview of the current wildland fire patterns and challenges as perceived by national representatives, supplemented by national fire statistics (2009-2018) across Europe. For each of the 31 countries included, we present a perspective authored by scientists or practitioners from each respective country, representing a wide range of disciplines and cultural backgrounds. The authors were selected from members of the COST Action "Fire and the Earth System: Science & Society" funded by the European Commission with the aim to share knowledge and improve communication about wildland fire. Where relevant, a brief overview of key studies, particular wildland fire challenges a country is facing, and an overview of notable recent fire events are also presented. Key perceived challenges included (1) the lack of consistent and detailed records for wildland fire events, within and across countries, (2) an increase in wildland fires that pose a risk to properties and human life due to high population densities and sprawl into forested regions, and (3) the view that, irrespective of changes in management, climate change is likely to increase the frequency and impact of wildland fires in the coming decades. Addressing challenge (1) will not only be valuable in advancing national and pan-European wildland fire management strategies, but also in evaluating perceptions (2) and (3) against more robust quantitative evidence.Peer reviewe

Studie av synlighet til høytmonterte markeringsskilt i brannrøyk

Målet for prosjektet er å undersøke synlighet til høytmonterte markeringsskilt i brannrøyk. Dette ble dokumentert gjennom en forsøksserie på to forsøk. Forsøkene ble utført i et hybel/ korridoroppsett hvor ett etterlysende og ett elektrisk markeringsskilt ble montert høyt i hver sin ende av korridoren utenfor startbranncellen. Forsøksserien innebar utløsning av optisk røykvarsler og sprinkleranlegg i hybel/ korridoroppsettet. Skiltenes synlighet ble vurdert kvalitativt gjennom observasjon og videoopptak. Brannrøykens sjikting og tetthet ble vurdert ut fra optisk måling av røytetthet, samt observasjoner av synlighet til høyde- og dybdemarkeringer i rommet. Resultatene indikerer at høytmonterte markeringsskilt kan være synlige i lett, lys, ikketubulent brannrøyk, men at tettere, mørkere og turbulent brannrøyk kan på kort tid føre til at høytmonterte markeringsskilt ikke lengre er synlige.</p

Fighting flameless fires : Initiating and extinguishing self-sustainedsmoldering fires in wood pellets

Smoldering fires represent domestic, environmental and industrial hazards. This flameless form of combustion is more easily initiated than flaming, and is also more persistent and difficult to extinguish. The growing demand for non-fossil fuels has increased the use of solid biofuels such as biomass. This represents a safety challenge, as biomass self-ignition can cause smoldering fires, flaming fires or explosions. Smoldering and extinguishment in granular biomass was studied experimentally. The set-up consisted of a cylindrical fuel container of steel with thermally insulated side walls. The container was closed at the bottom, open at the top and heated from below by a hot surface. Two types of wood pellets were used as fuel, with 0.75-1.5 kg samples. Logistic regression was used to determine the transition region between non-smoldering and self-sustained smoldering experiments, and to determine the influence of parameters. Duration of external heating was most important for initiation of smoldering. Sample height was also significant, while the type of wood pellet was near-significant and fuel container height was not. The susceptibility of smoldering to changes in air supply was studied. With a small gap at the bottom of the fuel bed, the increased air flow in the same direction as the initial smoldering front (forward air flow) caused a significantly more intense combustion compared to the normal set-up with opposed air flow. Heat extraction from the combustion was studied using a water-cooled copper pipe. Challenges with direct fuel-water contact (fuel swelling, water channeling and runoff) were thus avoided. Smoldering was extinguished in 7 of 15 cases where heat extraction was in the same range as the heat production from combustion. This is the first experimental proof-of-concept of cooling as an extinguishment method for smoldering fires. Marginal differences in heating and cooling separated smoldering from extinguished cases; the fuel bed was at a heating-cooling balance point. Lower cooling levels did not lead to extinguishment, but cooling caused more predictable smoldering, possibly delaying the most intense combustion. Also observed at the balance point were pulsating temperatures; a form of long-lived (hours), macroscopic synchronization not previously observed in smoldering fires. For practical applications, cooling could be feasible for prevention of temperature escalation from self-heating in industrial storage units. This study provides a first step towards improved fuel storage safety for biomass. Schwelbrände repräsentieren Brände die eine Gefahr im häuslichen, ökologischen und industriellen Umfeld darstellen. Diese flammenlose Form eines Brandes ist leichter zu starten, stabiler im Verlauf und schwieriger zu löschen als Flammenbrände. Die wachsende Nachfrage nach nicht fossilen Brennstoffen hat die Verwendung von festen Bioenergieträgern, wie Biomasse, erhöht. Daraus resultieren neue Sicherheitsanforderungen, da die Selbstentzündung fester Biomasse einen Schwelbrand, einen Brand oder eine Explosion verursachen kann. Schwelen und Löschen von granularer Biomasse wurde experimentell untersucht. Der experimentelle Aufbau bestand aus einem zylindrischen Brennstoffbehälter aus Stahl mit wärmeisolierten Seitenwänden. Der Behälter wurde unten geschlossen, oben offen gelassen und von unten durch eine heiße Oberfläche erhitzt. Als Brennstoff wurden zwei Arten von Holzpellets, in Proben von 0,75 kg bis 1,5 kg, verwendet. Um den Übergang von nicht Schwelen zu selbständigem Schwelen und die beeinflussenden Parameter zu bestimmen, wurde logistische Regression verwendet. Um Schwelbrand zu erzeugen, war die Dauer der externen Erwärmung am wichtigsten. Die Probenhöhe war ebenfalls signifikant, während die Art der Holzpellets nahezu signifikant war, wobei die Höhe des Brennstoffbehälters nicht signifikant war. Die Anfälligkeit des Schwelens gegenüber Änderungen der Luftzufuhr wurde untersucht. Mit einem kleinen Spalt am Boden des Behälters, ergab der erhöhte Luftstrom in der gleichen Richtung wie die anfängliche Schwelbrandfront (Vorwärtsluftstrom) eine signifikant intensivere Verbrennung im Vergleich zu der normalen Anordnung mit Rückwärtsluftstrom. Die Wärmeentnahme aus der Verbrennung wurde mithilfe eines wassergekühlten Kupferrohres untersucht. Dadurch wurden Probleme in Verbindung mit direktem Brennstoff-Wasser-Kontakt (Aufquellen des Brennstoffes, Wasserkanalisierung und-abfluss) vermieden. Der Schwelbrand wurde in 7 von 15 Fällen gelöscht, wobei die Menge des Wärmeverlustes durch die Kühleinheit und die Wärmeerzeugung durch die Verbrennung im gleichen Größenbereich lagen. Dies ist der erste "Proof-of-concept" der sich mit Kühlen als Löschmethode bei Schwelbränden beschäftigt. Geringfügige Unterschiede in der Erwärmung und Abkühlung führten zu Schwelbränden oder gelöschten Schwelbränden und zeigten das Brennstoffbett im Gleichgewicht zwischen Erhitzen und Kühlen. Niedrigere Abkühlungsniveaus führten nicht zum Erlöschen, aber das Kühlen führte zu einem vorhersagbareren Schwelen und verzögerte möglicherweise die intensivste Verbrennung. An diesem Gleichgewichtspunkt wurden pulsierende Temperaturen beobachtet; eine Form von langlebiger (Stunden), makroskopischer Synchronisation, die bisher bei Schwelbränden nicht beobachtet wurde. Denkbar als praktische Anwendung wäre eine Kühlung in industriellen Lagereinheiten zur Verhinderung einer Temperaturerhöhung durch Selbsterwärmung. Diese Studie ist ein erster Schritt in Richtung Verbesserung der Lagersicherheit von Biomasse in industriellen Lagereinheiten.EMRIS, emerging risks from smoldering fire

Hydrothermal synthesis of materials for intermediate band solar cells

Solar energy is an abundant energy source that may provide an environmentallyfriendly alternative to fossil fuels. The utilization of the solar energy have so farbeen limited by various energy losses in the photovoltaic devices. Intermediateband solar cells use a three photon absorption process to take advantage of alarger range of photon energies compared to conventional solar cells, increasingthe maximum eciency of the solar cell. Iron substituted copper gallium disulphide(CGFS) has been proposed as one of the most promising systems, basedon eciency calculations. Recently a CGFS with promising absorption propertieshas been synthesized, suggesting that an intermediate band may indeed beintroduced to the CuGaS2 band gap.In this thesis, hydrothermal synthesis is used to make a parameter studyof the unsubstituted CuGaS2 to optimize the phase purity. Iron substitutioninto the lattice has been attempted and a preliminary study of the reactionmechanisms has been made. Phase identication of the products has beenmade using x-ray diraction (XRD) and the diractograms have been analysedusing Rietveld and Pawley renements to determine phase composition, latticeparameters and crystallite sizes. The microstructure of the products has beencharacterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersivespectroscopy analysis (EDS) has been used to determine the composition of thedierent microstructures. Reflectance spectroscopy has been attempted to find theabsorption properties of the material.The major findings are that a parameter combination of 200-250 degrees reactiontemperature, 30 hour reaction time and a copper and gallium precursor concentrationof 0.15M or higher gives the most phase pure product of ca. 95 atomicpercent CuGaS2. Degree of filling of the autoclave was not found to have alarge effect on the product, though extreme fill factors were not tested. It issuggested that the CuGaS2 crystallites grow by a continuous reaction betweenthe precipitated secondary phases and the unreacted precursors in the solution.A reaction temperature above 160 degrees or a reaction time over 1 hour is neededfor nucleation of CuGaS2. Indications of iron substitution into the CuGaS2lattice by hydrothermal synthesis were found, which has not been previouslyreported. The obtained products were not phase pure enough to make accuratereffinements on lattice positions

Fire without flames : 13 amazing facts aboutsmouldering fires

This FRIC report presents a popular scientific overview of 13 facts about smouldering fires. Theaim is that the reader will get an insight into why these fires fascinate, their challenges andconsequences, and how to extinguish them. The 13 facts are on the following topics: 1. Fragmented knowledge2. Nicknames3. Peat and coal areas - a worldwide challenge4. Peat fires in Indonesia5. Burning Mountain of Australia6. Wood pellets silo fires7. Fire deaths caused by smouldering fires8. Coal fires in China9. World Trade Center10. Smouldering in space11. Zombie Fires12. Titanic13. Fighting flameless fires The report is complemented with an interactive, online presentation which may be found here:https://prezi.com/view/yVFHODruMbxK3e9yMLkF

FRIC - General Introduction

This is a short information video about The Fire Research and Innovation Centre (FRIC).   The Fire Research and Innovation Centre (FRIC) started in spring 2019. The main objective of the centre is to increase knowledge within the field of fire science in order to support decisions and develop better solutions providing increased fire safety in buildings. FRIC shall strengthen cooperation and lead to a long-term increase of competence and dissemination of knowledge within the fire safety field. The research is organized into four work packages: 1. Evidence-based decision-making within fire safety 2. Fire dynamics and modeling  3. Building technology and design  4. Fire safety measures and new technology FRIC is led by RISE Fire Research in Trondheim, with NTNU and SINTEF as research partners. FRIC has partners from the fire and rescue service, public sector, consultancy engineers, manufacturers of building materials and building installations, as well as within real estate development and management</p

FRIC - General Introduction

This is a short information video about The Fire Research and Innovation Centre (FRIC).   The Fire Research and Innovation Centre (FRIC) started in spring 2019. The main objective of the centre is to increase knowledge within the field of fire science in order to support decisions and develop better solutions providing increased fire safety in buildings. FRIC shall strengthen cooperation and lead to a long-term increase of competence and dissemination of knowledge within the fire safety field. The research is organized into four work packages: 1. Evidence-based decision-making within fire safety 2. Fire dynamics and modeling  3. Building technology and design  4. Fire safety measures and new technology FRIC is led by RISE Fire Research in Trondheim, with NTNU and SINTEF as research partners. FRIC has partners from the fire and rescue service, public sector, consultancy engineers, manufacturers of building materials and building installations, as well as within real estate development and management</p

Brann til jul

Fire for Christmas The topic of this study is the fire safety related to use of candles in Christmas decorations and is funded by the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) and the Norwegian Building Authority (DiBK). Photos of decorations with candles placed near combustible materials are flourishing in social media, especially around Christmas time. This project studies the fire hazards related to such decorations and groups of tealights. Experiments were conducted to demonstrate the fire hazard of different types of Christmas decorations, as well as small-scale experiments with measurement of temperature development in groups of tealights. The experiments were documented with images and video, infrared (IR) camera, and temperature measurements. Some photos are shown in this report, while other image and video material are presented in social media. By showing examples of what can go wrong, and showing simple measures people can take, we hope to increase the awareness of how to avoid fire for Christmas. The results from the study are summarized in the following four points to remember, and eight measures people can do at home. Remember this to avoid fire for Christmas: • Not everything you see in commercials and social media is safe. • Many candles placed close together can be a fire hazard. • Unforeseen things can happen, a cat can walk by and make the candle tip over, a child can pull the tablecloth, or there can be a draft from a window. • Not all candle holders are stable. What can you do to avoid fire for Christmas: • Think about fire safety when decorating for Christmas, do not copy uncritically from others. • Avoid lighting candles near combustible materials. This includes advent decorations and Christmas trees. • Replace candles with LEDs. • Replace combustible decorations with for example stone, glass, or ceramics. • Do not leave burning candles unattended. • Remember to test and change batteries in smoke detectors. • Follow the safety instructions written on the candle packaging. • Keep minimum 10 cm (or the producers recommended distance) between tealights. • Choose stable candle holders.Finansiert av: Direktoratet for samfunnssikkerhet og beredskap og Direktoratet for Byggkvalitet</p

Brannsikkerhet i lek- og aktivitetssenter

Fire safety in buildings used for play and recreational activity This project has been carried out on behalf of the Norwegian Building Authority (DiBK) and the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) as part of the research agreement between DSB and RISE Fire Research. The aim of the project has been to determine whether activity centres (offering indoor activities for different age groups, e.g. indoor playgrounds, trampoline parks and gymnastics halls) are well equipped to reduce the risk of ignition, spread of fire, and smoke production, and for high heat release as well as to handle escape in case of fire. All with regard to the particular combination of the number and type of visitors, type of activity in the premises, as well as the large amount of combustible and potentially highly flammable furnishings present in the building. In this report we have described fire engineering issues specifically related to the activity centres, partly based on a study of technical reports from the buildings’ planning phase and monitoring reports from the operational phase. Our main findings are related to • Lacking overall fire safety evaluation regarding the building and the safety plans of the responsible business owner with respect to:- The significance of the furnishing and use of material for personal safety.- Distribution of responsibility to evaluate the furnishing in a risk perspective. • Ignition and early fire development:- There is not enough focus on ignition sources in the design and planning phase.- The fire performance of materials is not sufficiently taken into account during the design and planning phase and the requirements for documentation are insufficient and not relevant enough. • Escape:- Children's behaviour during escape is not taken into account when planning.- The activity in activity centres is not taken into account during the planning phase.- The effect of the interior (both material properties, physical position in the room and geometry) on the escape routes and escape time is not taken into account when planning.- Deviations from the requirement for low-placed way guidance systems are made on an uncertain basis. • Organizational measures:- Organizational measures are hardly mentioned in the fire concepts.- Deviations regarding organizational measures during the operational phase is the responsibility of business owners. This indicates uncertainty or lack of competence of regulation