Understanding British and European political issues

This book looks at the important issues in British politics since 1945, including a brief guide to the changing political culture of Britain in that period. It will be essential reading for all students studying politics at A2 level, as it covers all the important issues required by the main examining boards. Neil McNaughton is a seasoned writer at this level. He begins by reviewing the changing nature of the principal political ideologies - Conservatism, Labourism and Liberalism - before discussing how these ideological changes impact generally on policy developments in the UK. Having described the changing nature of the political culture, addressing partisan dealignment, changing morality, the decline of religion and class fragmentation, he examines, on a chapter by chapter basis, the key issues of British politics today: the economy, the welfare state, law and order, race relations, the particular problems affecting Northern Ireland, devolution, constitutional reform, rights, the environment, issues of gender and sexual orientation, European integration and the European Union, the impact of the European Union on Britain, ending with a brief summary of the issues that are likely to take centre stage in British politics in the first decade of the new century. Written in an accessible style, with helpful features such as summaries, definitions, tables and boxes to illuminate the points made, this book is urgently needed as students grapple with the issues thrown up by the new examinations

Understanding British and European political issues: a guide for A2 politics students

This book looks at the important issues in British politics since 1945, including a brief guide to the changing political culture of Britain in that period. It will be essential reading for all students studying politics at A2 level, as it covers all the important issues required by the main examining boards. Neil McNaughton is a seasoned writer at this level. He begins by reviewing the changing nature of the principal political ideologies - Conservatism, Labourism and Liberalism - before discussing how these ideological changes impact generally on policy developments in the UK. Having described the changing nature of the political culture, addressing partisan dealignment, changing morality, the decline of religion and class fragmentation, he examines, on a chapter by chapter basis, the key issues of British politics today: the economy, the welfare state, law and order, race relations, the particular problems affecting Northern Ireland, devolution, constitutional reform, rights, the environment, issues of gender and sexual orientation, European integration and the European Union, the impact of the European Union on Britain, ending with a brief summary of the issues that are likely to take centre stage in British politics in the first decade of the new century. Written in an accessible style, with helpful features such as summaries, definitions, tables and boxes to illuminate the points made, this book is urgently needed as students grapple with the issues thrown up by the new examinations

Understanding British and European political issues

This book looks at the important issues in British politics since 1945, including a brief guide to the changing political culture of Britain in that period. It will be essential reading for all students studying politics at A2 level, as it covers all the important issues required by the main examining boards. Neil McNaughton is a seasoned writer at this level. He begins by reviewing the changing nature of the principal political ideologies - Conservatism, Labourism and Liberalism - before discussing how these ideological changes impact generally on policy developments in the UK. Having described the changing nature of the political culture, addressing partisan dealignment, changing morality, the decline of religion and class fragmentation, he examines, on a chapter by chapter basis, the key issues of British politics today: the economy, the welfare state, law and order, race relations, the particular problems affecting Northern Ireland, devolution, constitutional reform, rights, the environment, issues of gender and sexual orientation, European integration and the European Union, the impact of the European Union on Britain, ending with a brief summary of the issues that are likely to take centre stage in British politics in the first decade of the new century. Written in an accessible style, with helpful features such as summaries, definitions, tables and boxes to illuminate the points made, this book is urgently needed as students grapple with the issues thrown up by the new examinations

Structure Theorem and Strict Alternation Hierarchy for FO^2 on Words

It is well-known that every first-order property on words is expressible using at most three variables. The subclass of properties expressible with only two variables is also quite interesting and well-studied. We prove precise structure theorems that characterize the exact expressive power of first-order logic with two variables on words. Our results apply to both the case with and without a successor relation. For both languages, our structure theorems show exactly what is expressible using a given quantifier depth, n, and using m blocks of alternating quantifiers, for any m \leq n. Using these characterizations, we prove, among other results, that there is a strict hierarchy of alternating quantifiers for both languages. The question whether there was such a hierarchy had been completely open. As another consequence of our structural results, we show that satisfiability for first-order logic with two variables without successor, which is NEXP-complete in general, becomes NP-complete once we only consider alphabets of a bounded size

Construction of complex memories via parallel distributed cortical-subcortical iterative integration

The construction of complex engrams requires hippocampal–cortical interactions. These include both direct interactions and ones via often-overlooked subcortical loops. Here, we review the anatomical organization of a hierarchy of parallel ‘Papez’ loops through the hypothalamus that are homologous in mammals from rats to humans. These hypothalamic loops supplement direct hippocampal–cortical connections with iterative reprocessing paced by theta rhythmicity. We couple existing anatomy and lesion data with theory to propose that recirculation in these loops progressively enhances desired connections, while reducing interference from competing external goals and internal associations. This increases the signal-to-noise ratio in the distributed engrams (neocortical and cerebellar) necessary for complex learning and memory. The hypothalamic nodes provide key motivational input for engram enhancement during consolidation

Mechanisms of comorbidity, continuity, and discontinuity in anxiety-related disorders

We discuss comorbidity, continuity, and discontinuity of anxiety-related disorders from the perspective of a two-dimensional neuropsychology of fear (threat avoidance) and anxiety (threat approach). Pharmacological dissection of the "neurotic" disorders justifies both a categorical division between fear and anxiety and a subdivision of each mapped to a hierarchy of neural modules that process different immediacies of threat. It is critical that each module can generate normal responses, symptoms of another syndrome, or syndromal responses. We discuss the resultant possibilities for comorbid dysfunction of these modules both with each other and with some disorders not usually classified as anxiety related. The simplest case is symptomatic fear/anxiety comorbidity, where dysfunction in one module results in excess activity in a second, otherwise normal, module to generate symptoms and apparent comorbidity. More complex is syndromal fear/anxiety comorbidity, where more than one module is concurrently dysfunctional. Yet more complex are syndromal comorbidities of anxiety that go beyond the two dimensional fear/anxiety systems: depression, substance use disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Our account of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-anxiety comorbidity entails discussion of the neuropsychology of externalizing disorders to account for the lack of anxiety comorbidity in some of these. Finally, we link the neuropsychology of disorder to personality variation, and to the development of a biomarker of variation in the anxiety system among individuals that, if extreme, may provide a means of unambiguously identifying the first of a range of anxiety syndromes

Approach, avoidance, and their conflict: the problem of anchoring

To understand the neurobiology of indi-vidual differences in approach and avoid-ance behavior, we must anchor constructs at the behavioral level to the long-term global sensitivities of the neural systems that give rise to the observed stable pat-terns of behavior. We will argue that this requires not only appropriate data at both the neural and behavioral levels but also appropriate account to be taken of inter-actions at the intervening level of the conceptual nervous system (Hebb, 1949; Gray, 1975). In particular, in accounting for approach and avoidance behavior we must include consideration of the distinc

Bi-Directional Theta Modulation between the Septo-Hippocampal System and the Mammillary Area in Free-Moving Rats

Hippocampal (HPC) theta oscillations have long been linked to various functions of the brain. Many cortical and subcortical areas that also exhibit theta oscillations have been linked to functional circuits with the hippocampus on the basis of coupled activities at theta frequencies. We examine, in freely moving rats, the characteristics of diencephalic theta local field potentials (LFPs) recorded in the supramammillary/mammillary (SuM/MM) areas that are bi-directionally connected to the HPC through the septal complex. Using partial directed coherence (PDC), we find support for previous suggestions that SuM modulates HPC theta at higher frequencies. We find weak separation of SuM and MM by dominant theta frequency recorded locally. Contrary to oscillatory cell activities under anesthesia where SuM is insensitive, but MM is sensitive to medial septal (MS) inactivation, theta LFPs persisted and became indistinguishable after MS-inactivation. However, MS-inactivation attenuated SuM/MM theta power, while increasing the frequency of SuM/MM theta. MS-inactivation also reduced root mean squared power in both HPC and SuM/MM equally, but reduced theta power differentially in the time domain. We provide converging evidence that SuM is preferentially involved in coding HPC theta at higher frequencies, and that the MS-HPC circuit normally imposes a frequency-limiting modulation over the SuM/MM area as suggested by cell-based recordings in anesthetized animals. In addition, we provide evidence that the postulated SuM-MS-HPC-MM circuit is under complex bi-directional control, rather than SuM and MM having roles as unidirectional relays in the network

Midfrontal theta reactivity to conflict and error are linked to externalizing and internalizing respectively

Dimensional psychopathology scores measure symptom severity" cutting across disorder categories. Their clinical utility is high given comorbidity, but their neural basis is unclear. We used scalp electroencephalography (EEG) to concurrently assess neural activity across internalizing and externalizing traits. "Theta rhythm" (4–7 Hz) spectral power at the frontal midline site Fz in specific goal conflict and action error phases within a trial of a Stop-Signal Task was extracted using process-specific contrasts. A final sample of 146 community participants (63 males, 83 females" mean age = 36" SD = 9" range = 18 – 56), oversampled for externalizing disorder (49% diagnosed with a DSM-5 externalizing disorder), also supplied psychopathology and personality data. We used the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory−3 (MMPI-3) to measure symptoms and traits of psychopathology. An MMPI-3 measure of the higher-order internalizing psychopathology spectrum was positively correlated with action error theta. An MMPI-3 measure of the higher-order spectrum of externalizing psychopathology was negatively correlated with goal-conflict theta. We showed that goal conflict and error theta activity are higher-order processes that index psychopathology severity. The associations extend into the nominally healthy range, and so reflect theta-related factors that apply to the general population as well as patients with sub-threshold diagnoses

Role of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors, sphingosine kinases and sphingosine in cancer and inflammation

Sphingosine kinase (there are two isoforms, SK1 and SK2) catalyses the formation of sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), a bioactive lipid that can be released from cells to activate a family of G protein-coupled receptors, termed S1P1-5. In addition, S1P can bind to intracellular target proteins, such as HDAC1/2, to induce cell responses. There is increasing evidence of a role for S1P receptors (e.g. S1P4) and SK1 in cancer, where high expression of these proteins in ER negative breast cancer patient tumours is linked with poor prognosis. Indeed, evidence will be presented here to demonstrate that S1P4 is functionally linked with SK1 and the oncogene HER2 (ErbB2) to regulate mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and growth of breast cancer cells. Although much emphasis is placed on SK1 in terms of involvement in oncogenesis, evidence will also be presented for a role of SK2 in both T-cell and B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In patient T-ALL lymphoblasts and T-ALL cell lines, we have demonstrated that SK2 inhibitors promote T-ALL cell death via autophagy and induce suppression of c-myc and PI3K/AKT pathways. We will also present evidence demonstrating that certain SK inhibitors promote oxidative stress and protein turnover via proteasomal degradative pathways linked with induction of p53-and p21-induced growth arrest. In addition, the SK1 inhibitor, PF-543 exacerbates disease progression in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model indicating that SK1 functions in an anti-inflammatory manner. Indeed, sphingosine, which accumulates upon inhibition of SK1 activity, and sphingosine-like compounds promote activation of the inflammasome, which is linked with multiple sclerosis, to stimulate formation of the pro-inflammatory mediator, IL-1β. Such compounds could be exploited to produce antagonists that diminish exaggerated inflammation in disease. The therapeutic potential of modifying the SK-S1P receptor pathway in cancer and inflammation will therefore, be reviewed