A composite measure to determine a host country's attractiveness for foreign direct investment

We contribute to the question of why some countries are more attractive for foreign direct investment (FDI) than others by constructing a composite measure that describes a host country's attractiveness for receiving FDI. This index considers all identified major, measurable and, for our scope, comparable aspects that affect FDI decisions. As a result, we can rank 127 countries with respect to their FDI attraction. The index provides the possibility of conducting detailed strength and weakness analyses for all of our sample countries and regions. These analyses provide support to policy-makers to improve their country's attractiveness for receiving inward FDI. They also enhance the discussion of why FDI flows still remain concentrated in advanced economies and, additionally, in which areas emerging and developing economies have to improve in order to narrow the existing gap. We provide correlation and sensitivity analyses to test the quality of our composite measure. Additionally, we benchmark our index with several alternative indices. Thereby, we show that no other index tracks actual FDI activity more closely.Country Comparison; Composite Measure; Index; FDI;

Neuer Funktionstest zur Qualitätssicherung transfundierter Plättchen (PLT) aus Thrombozyt-Apherese-Konzentraten (TAK)

Einleitung: Für eine einwandfreie Therapie mit Thrombozyten sind routinemäßige und standardisierte Thrombozytenfunktionstests unabdingbar, um aus klinisch-therapeutischen und letztlich auch ökonomischen Gesichtspunkten eine optimale Versorgung sicher zu stellen. Für dieses hohe Ziel eignet sich der „Platelet ADhesion Assay“ (PADA). Derzeit besitzt er noch keine Zulassung für den geforderten Funktionsnachweis. Er reflektiert mit der Bestimmung des Adhäsionsindex (AI) aber die für die Hämostase unabdingbare Adhäsion der PLT an unlöslichen Oberflächen und gelingt ohne Zusatz von Agonisten sowohl mit PLT aus frischen und gelagerten AP-TK (vor Transfusion [TF]) als auch im citrierten Vollblut (nach TF). Material und Methode: Wie untersuchten den lagerungsabhängigen AI mit einem Referenzwert von 50±11 der PLT an 93 AP-TK. Dabei erfolgten die Messungen an 2,3,4 oder 5 Tage gelagerten AP-TK unmittelbar vor TF und ca. 1 Stunde nach TF. Der PADA bei den AP-TK vor TF wurde jeweils im Doppelansatz durch entsprechenden Zusatz von Testerythrozyten mit einem annähernd physiologischen Hämatokrit (HK) im Mittel von 0,39 bzw. einem patientenadäquaten HK im Mittel von 0,23 durchgeführt, um die Korrelation und die bereits bekannte signifikante Abhängigkeit des AI vom HK zeigen zu können (p<0,001; r=0,651). Weiterhin sind an diesen Tagen der PLT-Aktivierungsmarker CD62P vor und nach TF sowie das korrigierte Inkrement (CCI) und die Recovery nach TF ermittelt worden. Resultate: Bei den Versuchen mit dem PADA an AP-TK-PLT vor und nach TF hat sich wie erwartet gezeigt, dass sich die Adhäsivität der PLT mit der Zunahme der Lagerungszeit signifikant verschlechtert. Besonders gravierend zeigte sich dabei ein Abfall des AI ab einer Lagerungszeit von mehr als 3 Tagen. Er lag bei den AP-TK-PLT vor TF am Tag 2 durchschnittlich bei 14,2±0,9, am Tag 3 bei 13,8±1,1 und fiel bis zum Tag 4 auf einen Wert von 10,7±1,1 bzw. 10,6±1,3 am Tag 5 ab. Noch eindrücklicher erwiesen sich die Messdaten der AP-TK-PLT nach TF: Der Tag 2 ergab einen AI von 57,1±3,4 und der Tag 3 lag noch relativ hoch bei 53,4±2,5. Am Tag 4 sank er jedoch einbruchartig auf einen Wert von 41,8±3,3 ab und war mit einem AI von 41,4±2,4 am Tag 5 nahezu unverändert. Mit zunehmender Alterung der AP-TK-PLT vor TF stieg deren Voraktivierung hochsignifikant an: Zunahme von CD62P (p<0,001). Nach TF kam es zu einem inversen Verlauf des CD62P: Es fiel mit zunehmender Lagerung signifikant ab (p<0,05). Eine niedrige Voraktivierung frischer AP-TK vor TF führt zu einer verminderten Eliminierung nach TF mit einem dementsprechend hohen CCI und Recovery. Bei alten AP-TK-PLT mit hoher Voraktivierung vor TF kommt es somit zur zunehmenden Eliminierung nach TF und konsekutiv zur signifikanten Abnahme des CCI und der Recovery (p<0,05). Diese signifikante lagerungs- und voraktivierungsabhängige Abnahme des CCI und der Recovery konnten wir in unseren Untersuchungen nachweisen. Schlussfolgerung Mit unserer Arbeit konnte, zusätzlich zur Messung der Funktion von AP-TK-PLT vor TF, erstmalig die Funktion derselben Thrombozyten nach TF an Patienten in Aplasie gezeigt werden. Resümierend sollten routinemäßig Funktionsuntersuchungen zur Qualitätssicherung von AP-TK-PLT erfolgen. Unter Nutzung des standardisierten und kostengünstigen PADA zeigen unsere Ergebnisse, dass nur bis Tag 3 gelagerte AP-TK-PLT bei einem möglichst physiologischen HK eine optimale Funktion gewährleisten und daher übertragen werden können. Unter Nutzung des standardisierten und kostengünstigen PADA zeigen unsere Ergebnisse, dass nur bis Tag 3 gelagerte TAK-PLT bei einem möglichst physiologischen HK eine optimale Funktion gewährleisten und daher einen ausreichenden hämostatischen Effekt nach TF erzielen können. Denn die lagerungsinduzierte zunehmende Plättchenaktivierung und abnehmende Adhäsivität in den TAK ist mit einer verminderten Antwort auf Agonistenstimulation, einem kurzen Überleben der transfundierten PLT und einer verlängerten in vitro Blutungszeit assoziiert und bestimmt daher maßgeblich die klinische Effektivität der TF Die stetig ansteigenden Transfusionen von Blutprodukten, wie Thrombozyt-Apherese-Konzentrat-Plättchen (TAK-PLT) sind wesentlich in Thrombozytopenien bei primär und sekundär bedingter Knochenmarksinsuffizienz begründet. Die stetig ansteigenden Thrombozytentransfusionen (TF) der letzten Jahre sind wesentlich in Thrombozytopenien bei primär und sekundär bedingter Knochenmarksinsuffizienz begründet, bei denen eine TF von Blutprodukten, wie Thrombozyt-Apherese-Konzentrat-Plättchen (TAK-PLT), erforderlich werden kann.Introduction: Routine and standardized thrombocyte function tests are an indispensable requirement for a sound treatment with thrombocytes in order to ensure optimal patient care from the clinical-therapeutic point of view as well as ultimately also economic considerations. An ideal tool for this ambitious target is the "Platelet ADhesion Assay" (PADA). At present, this assay is not yet endorsed for the required functional proof. However, by determining the adhesion index (AI), it reflects the adhesion of PLT to insoluble surfaces, essential in haemostatic processes, and can be successfully performed without the addition of agonists using PLT from fresh as well as stored A-TC (prior to transfusion [TF]) as well as in citrated whole blood (after TF). Material and procedure: We examined the storage-dependent AI (with a reference value of 50±11) of PLT for 93 thrombocyte concentrates from apheresis (A-TC). Measurements were taken on A-TC stored for 2, 3, 4 or 5 days immediately prior to TF and approximately one hour after TF. The PADA on the A-TC prior to TF was performed in duplicate through the respective addition of test erythrocytes with an approximately physiological haematocrit (Hct) value of 0.39 or respectively a patient-commensurate Hct of 0.23 in order to show both the correlation and the already known significant dependence of the AI on the Hct (r=0.651). In addition, on the same days we also determined the PLT activation marker CD62P prior to and after TF as well as the corrected count increment (CCI) and the recovery after TF. Results: The experiments with PADA on A-TC platelets prior to and after TF have shown as expected that platelet adhesivity significantly deteriorates in line with increased length of storage. However, the drop in AI after a storage period of more than 3 days was particularly important. The AI of A-TC PLT prior to TF on Day 2 had an average value of 14.2±0.9, on Day 3 of 13.8±1.1 and by Day 4 had dropped to 10.7±1.1 or respectively 10.6±1.3 on Day 5. The readings for A-TC PLT after TF were even more impressive: on Day 2, the AI was measured at 57.1±3.4 and even on Day, its value was still comparatively high at 53.4±2.5. On Day 4, though, it fell dramatically to 41.8±3.3 and then remained virtually unchanged at 41.4±2.4 for Day 5. The base activation level of A-TC PLT prior to TF rose highly significantly in line with their increased ageing: a rise in CD62P (p<0.001). After TF, an inverse progress of CD62P was observed: it fell significantly in line the increased length of storage (p<0.05). Low pre-activation of fresh A-TC before TF leads to decreased elimination after TF and a commensurate increase in CCI and recovery. By contrast, aged A-TC PLT with high pre-activation levels prior to TF result in increased elimination after TF and as a consequence to a significant drop in CCI and recovery (p<0.05). Our tests were able to provide evidence of this significant fall in CCI and recovery in dependence on length of storage and pre-activation levels. Conclusion In addition to measuring the function of A-TC PLT prior to TF, our study is the first to show the function of the same thrombocytes after TF in patients in aplasia. In conclusion, we advocate the routine performance of function tests to assure the quality of A-TC PLT. Using the standardized and cost-effective PADA, our tests show that only A-TC PLT stored for up to Day 3 with as physiological an Hct as possible can guarantee physiological functionality and should thus be used in transfusions

Synthesis of Metal-Rich Compounds of Group 15 Elements in Lewis-Acidic Ionic Liquids

Chemical synthesis of materials is facing enormous challenges at the present time. The necessary transition toward more sustainable economic processes requires new materials as well as optimized production of well-established materials. However, inorganic materials (e.g., ceramics or alloys) are typically produced industrially by high-temperature processes at up to 2000 °C. A relatively new approach for inorganic synthesis is based on so-called ionic liquids. Ionic liquids (ILs) — often defined as salts with melting points below 100 °C[1] — are usually composed of sterically demanding organic cations and (often) polyatomic anions, which can be selected in order to tune the properties of the IL. Owing to the distinctive physicochemical properties of ILs (e.g., wide liquidus range, high redox and thermal stability, (usually) negligible vapor pressure, tunable polarity), they have gained interest for a wide range of applications. Among the numerous inorganic materials accessible in ILs have been remarkable examples, especially in main-group element chemistry. For instance, a new metastable modification of germanium in the clathrate-II structure[2] or the largest known naked, main-group element cluster [Sn36Ge24Se132]24– (“Zeoball”).[3] The introduction of Lewis-acidic ILs has enhanced the convenience of polycation syntheses and enabled substitution of carcinogenic or toxic substances like benzene, SO2, or AsF5.[4] A considerable number of polycations of group 15 or 16 elements has been synthesized in ILs. The utilization of an IL as reaction medium can be decisive for the composition, structure, and physical properties of the (polycationic) reaction product.[5] In order to broaden the knowledge on synthesis techniques for inorganic materials near ambient temperature based on ILs, this thesis aimed at two goals: • Explorative synthesis of new inorganic compounds in ILs • Elucidating the influence of ILs on product formation For these two goals, metal-rich (polycationic) compounds of group 15 were chosen as promising chemical system, owing to the effectiveness of alkylimidazolium-based Lewis-acidic ILs for the synthesis of this class of compounds. A variety of new polycationic compounds has been successfully synthesized in Lewis-acidic ILs based on 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium (or 1-ethy-3-methylimidazolium) halides and halogenido-aluminates. Determination of the crystal structures by single-crystal X-ray diffraction enabled analysis of their bonding situation supported by quantum-chemical calculations. In general, the employed ILs enabled syntheses with a high selectivity for the yielded polycation. Depending on the investigated chemical system, the following parameters were pinpointed to have significant influence: • Choice of starting materials • Choice of cation as well as anion of the IL • Reaction temperature • Concentration of starting materials in the IL The investigations were supported by NMR spectroscopy, which led to the discovery of nanoparticles of red phosphorus. This finding may stimulate the development of an easily accessible, reactive form of phosphorus without the hazardous drawbacks of the white allotrope. In addition, in situ NMR measurements in ILs were proven a viable option for mechanistic investigations. Conventional solid-state reaction as well as ionothermal syntheses yielded the new layered compounds M2Bi2S3(AlCl4)2 (M = Cu, Ag), which can be interpreted as Bi2S3 molecules embedded in MAlCl4 salts. The choice of starting materials was found to have a crucial influence on the crystallized polytype. Omitting the IL hindered the formation of crystals suitable for single-crystal structure determination. The three new main-group element heteropolycations [Bi6Te4Br2]4+, [Bi3S4AlCl]3+, and [Sb13Se16]7+ as well as known [Bi4Te4]4+ has been synthesized under ionothermal conditions. The Lewis-acidic ILs proved to be exceptional solvents for elements and their halides, and likewise for Bi2S3 and Bi2Te3. Hence, these solvents are not only advantageous reaction media for pnictogen and chalcogen chemistry but also potential (selective but expensive) ore-processing agents. These excellent solvent capabilities extend to complex ternary compounds including heavy transition metals such as Bi16PdCl22 and elemental platinum. This gave rise to the synthesis of metal-rich salts containing [Bi10]4+ antiprisms with an endohedral palladium or, for the first time, platinum atom. Furthermore, the filled bismuth polycation [Rh@Bi9]4+ or the complex cluster [Rh2Bi12]4+ could be obtained from dissolution and conversion of Bi12−xRhX13–x (X = Cl, Br) depending on the employed IL. Real-space bonding analysis revealed that [Rh2Bi12]4+ acquires a unique standing between dative bonding by bismuth polyions and mixed clusters following Wade-Mingos rules. References [1] J. S. Wilkes, P. Wasserscheid, T. Welton, in Ionic Liquids in Synthesis (Eds.: P. Wasserscheid, T. Welton), Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2007, pp. 1–6. [2] A. M. Guloy, R. Ramlau, Z. Tang, W. Schnelle, M. Baitinger, Y. Grin, Nature 2006, 443, 320–323. [3] Y. Lin, W. Massa, S. Dehnen, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 4497–4500. [4] E. Ahmed, D. Köhler, M. Ruck, Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem. 2009, 635, 297–300. [5] E. Ahmed, J. Beck, J. Daniels, T. Doert, S. J. Eck, A. Heerwig, A. Isaeva, S. Lidin, M. Ruck, W. Schnelle, et al., Angew. Chem. 2012, 124, 8230–8233; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 8106–8109

Al/Ga-Doped Li7La3Zr2O12 Garnets as Li-Ion Solid-State Battery Electrolytes: Atomistic Insights into Local Coordination Environments and Their Influence on 17O, 27Al, and 71Ga NMR Spectra.

Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) garnets are among the most promising solid electrolytes for next-generation all-solid-state Li-ion battery applications due to their high stabilities and ionic conductivities. To help determine the influence of different supervalent dopants on the crystal structure and site preferences, we combine solid-state 17O, 27Al, and 71Ga magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectroscopy and density-functional theory (DFT) calculations. DFT-based defect configuration analysis for the undoped and Al and/or Ga-doped LLZO variants uncovers an interplay between the local network of atoms and the observed NMR signals. Specifically, the two characteristic features observed in both 27Al and 71Ga NMR spectra result from both the deviations in the polyhedral coordination/site-symmetry within the 4-fold coordinated Li1/24d sites (rather than the doping of the other Li2/96h or La sites) and with the number of occupied adjacent Li2 sites that share oxygen atoms with these dopant sites. The sharp 27Al and 71Ga resonances arise from dopants located at a highly symmetric tetrahedral 24d site with four corner-sharing LiO4 neighbors, whereas the broader features originate from highly distorted dopant sites with fewer or no immediate LiO4 neighbors. A correlation between the size of the 27Al/71Ga quadrupolar coupling and the distortion of the doping sites (viz. XO4/XO5/XO6 with X = {Al/Ga}) is established. 17O MAS NMR spectra for these systems provide insights into the oxygen connectivity network: 17O signals originating from the dopant-coordinating oxygens are resolved and used for further characterization of the microenvironments at the dopant and other sites.-EPSRC,Grant No: EP/P003532/1 -DFG, Research Fellowship GR 5342/1-1 -EPSRC iCASE (Award No:1834544) -Royal Society Professorship(RP\R1\180147) -Resources by the "Cambridge Service for Data Driven Discovery" (CSD3, http://csd3.cam.ac.uk) system operated by the University of Cambridge Research Computing Service funded by EPSRC Tier-2 capital grant EP/P020259/1. -Resources from the ARCHER UK National Computing Service, funded by the EPSRC (EP/P003532/1)

Al/Ga-Doped Li7La3Zr2O12 Garnets as Li-Ion Solid-State Battery Electrolytes: Atomistic Insights into Local Coordination Environments and Their Influence on 17O, 27Al, and 71Ga NMR Spectra.

Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) garnets are among the most promising solid electrolytes for next-generation all-solid-state Li-ion battery applications due to their high stabilities and ionic conductivities. To help determine the influence of different supervalent dopants on the crystal structure and site preferences, we combine solid-state 17O, 27Al, and 71Ga magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectroscopy and density-functional theory (DFT) calculations. DFT-based defect configuration analysis for the undoped and Al and/or Ga-doped LLZO variants uncovers an interplay between the local network of atoms and the observed NMR signals. Specifically, the two characteristic features observed in both 27Al and 71Ga NMR spectra result from both the deviations in the polyhedral coordination/site-symmetry within the 4-fold coordinated Li1/24d sites (rather than the doping of the other Li2/96h or La sites) and with the number of occupied adjacent Li2 sites that share oxygen atoms with these dopant sites. The sharp 27Al and 71Ga resonances arise from dopants located at a highly symmetric tetrahedral 24d site with four corner-sharing LiO4 neighbors, whereas the broader features originate from highly distorted dopant sites with fewer or no immediate LiO4 neighbors. A correlation between the size of the 27Al/71Ga quadrupolar coupling and the distortion of the doping sites (viz. XO4/XO5/XO6 with X = {Al/Ga}) is established. 17O MAS NMR spectra for these systems provide insights into the oxygen connectivity network: 17O signals originating from the dopant-coordinating oxygens are resolved and used for further characterization of the microenvironments at the dopant and other sites.-EPSRC,Grant No: EP/P003532/1 -DFG, Research Fellowship GR 5342/1-1 -EPSRC iCASE (Award No:1834544) -Royal Society Professorship(RP\R1\180147) -Resources by the "Cambridge Service for Data Driven Discovery" (CSD3, http://csd3.cam.ac.uk) system operated by the University of Cambridge Research Computing Service funded by EPSRC Tier-2 capital grant EP/P020259/1. -Resources from the ARCHER UK National Computing Service, funded by the EPSRC (EP/P003532/1)

The hydrostatic control of load-induced height changes above subglacial Lake Vostok

Lake Vostok, East Antarctica, represents an extensive water surface at the base of the ice sheet. Snow, ice and atmospheric pressure loads applied anywhere within the lake area produce a hydrostatic response, involving deformations of the ice surface, ice–water interface and particle horizons. A modelling scheme is developed to derive height changes of these surfaces for a given load pattern. It is applied to a series of load scenarios, and predictions based on load fields derived from a regional climate model are compared to observational datasets. Our results show that surface height changes due to snow-buildup anomalies are damped over the lake area, reducing the spatial standard deviation by one-third. The response to air pressure variations, in turn, adds surface height variability. Atmospheric pressure loads may produce height changes of up to 4 cm at daily resolution, but decay rapidly with integration time. The hydrostatic load response has no significant impact neither on ICESat laser campaign biases determined over the lake area nor on vertical particle movements derived from GNSS observations

Rote Liste und Artenverzeichnis der Schnecken und Muscheln Baden-Württembergs

Die vorliegende Veröffentlichung umfasst zwei Grundbausteine. Zum einen die offizielle Rote Liste mit Nennung der Gefährdungskategorien, zum anderen ein revidiertes systematisches Gesamtartenverzeichnis der Mollusken Baden-Württembergs. Die Rote Liste dient zum schnellen Feststellen der jeweiligen Gefährdungskategorien der einzelnen Arten in Baden-Württemberg und ist wie üblich alphabetisch nach Gattungen geordnet. Sehr großer Wert wurde auf die sorgfältige Analyse der Ergebnisse gelegt (Kapitel 7). Das Gesamtartenverzeichnis dient der aktuellen systematischen Einordnung aller Arten, weshalb hier die Taxa im Kontext des wissenschaftlichen Systems der Mollusken aufgeführt werden. Im systematischen Artenverzeichnis soll der momentane Kenntnisstand über die Mollusken Baden-Württembergs in knapper Darstellung zum Ausdruck kommen. Hier sind auch die bekannten Unterarten aufgeführt und es werden zusätzliche Informationen zum Verbreitungstyp, zur Verbreitung (Vorkommen in den Naturräumen 3. Ordnung) sowie zur Ökologie (Zuordnung einzelner Arten zu bestimmten Biotoptypen) gegeben. Mit diesen Zusatzinformationen werden Rote Listen und Artenverzeichnisse zu Gradmessern der Biodiversitätsforschung. In über 130 ‚Anmerkungen‘ werden die entsprechenden Angaben zur Systematik, Verbreitung und Ökologie präzisiert und es wird auf die hierfür zu Grunde liegende Literatur verwiesen. Alle Angaben der Roten Liste sind auch im ausführlichen systematischen Artenverzeichnis enthalten. In beiden Listen sind die Arten mit ihrer laufenden Nummer aufgeführt. Damit ist ein problemloser Wechsel von der Roten Liste zu den Angaben im systematischen Artenverzeichnis gewährleistet. Der Forschungsstand findet sich vielfach in der historischen Literatur, die deshalb eine sorgfältige und kritische Berücksichtigung erfuhr (siehe Anmerkungen und Literaturverzeichnis). Einen unschätzbaren Wert haben in diesem Zusammenhang die zahlreichen Veröffentlichungen David Geyer‘s, die den Beginn der modernen Regionalfaunisik in Baden-Württemberg kennzeichnen. Ein eigenes Kapitel zur Forschungsgeschichte hätte jedoch den vorgegebenen Rahmen dieser Arbeit gesprengt

The hydrostatic control of load-induced height changes above subglacial Lake Vostok

Lake Vostok, East Antarctica, represents an extensive water surface at the base of the ice sheet. Snow, ice and atmospheric pressure loads applied anywhere within the lake area produce a hydrostatic response, involving deformations of the ice surface, ice-water interface and particle horizons. A modelling scheme is developed to derive height changes of these surfaces for a given load pattern. It is applied to a series of load scenarios, and predictions based on load fields derived from a regional climate model are compared to observational datasets. Our results show that surface height changes due to snow-buildup anomalies are damped over the lake area, reducing the spatial standard deviation by one-third. The response to air pressure variations, in turn, adds surface height variability. Atmospheric pressure loads may produce height changes of up to ±4 cm at daily resolution, but decay rapidly with integration time. The hydrostatic load response has no significant impact neither on ICESat laser campaign biases determined over the lake area nor on vertical particle movements derived from GNSS observations.Fil: Richter, Andreas Jorg. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - La Plata; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de la Plata. Facultad de Cs.astronomicas y Geofisicas. Laboratorio Maggia.; ArgentinaFil: Schröder, Ludwig. Technische Universität Dresden; AlemaniaFil: Scheinert, Mirko. Technische Universität Dresden; AlemaniaFil: Popov, Sergey V.. Polar Marine Geosurvey Expedition; Rusia. Saint Petersburg State University; RusiaFil: Groh, Andreas. Technische Universität Dresden; AlemaniaFil: Willen, Matthias. Technische Universität Dresden; AlemaniaFil: Horwath, Martin. Technische Universität Dresden; AlemaniaFil: Dietrich, Reinhard. Technische Universität Dresden; Alemani

Maintenance of Hair Follicle Immune Privilege Is Linked to Prevention of NK Cell Attack

Hair follicles (HFs) enjoy a relative immune privilege (IP) that is characterized by downregulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and local expression of potent immunosuppressants. Normally, natural killer (NK) cells attack cells with absent/low MHC class I expression. However, because few perifollicular NK cells are found around healthy human anagen HFs, we asked how HFs escape from NK cell attack. This study suggests that this happens via an active NK cell suppression. Alopecia areata (AA), an organ-specific autoimmune disease thought to result from a collapse of HF-IP, in contrast, shows striking defects in NK cell inhibition/containment. We show that the NK cell inhibitor macrophage migration inhibitory factor is strongly expressed by the HF epithelium, and very few CD56+/NKG2D+ NK cells are observed in and around normal anagen HFs compared to AA with prominent aggregations of CD56+/NKG2D+ NK around AA-HFs. By flow cytometry, many fewer NK function-activating receptors (NKG2D, NKG2C) and significantly more killer cell Ig-like receptors-2D2/2D3 were found to be expressed on peripheral blood CD56+ NK cells of healthy controls than on those of AA patients. In addition, only weak immunoreactivity for MHC class I chain-related A gene was observed in normal anagen HFs compared to AA. To our knowledge, this defect is previously unreported and must be taken into account in AA pathogenesis and its management