Προστασία κατά των διακρίσεων λόγω θρησκείας ή πεποιθήσεων, στη σχέση εργασίας

Στην εργασία αυτή θα αναλυθεί το ζήτημα της προστασίας κατά των διακρίσεων λόγω θρησκείας ή πεποιθήσεων στο χώρο εργασίας. Η εμπειρία έχει αποδείξει ότι οι εργαζόμενοι στην επαγγελματική τους σταδιοδρομία έρχονται συχνά αντιμέτωποι με δυσμενείς διακρίσεις λόγω προσωπικών γνωρισμάτων. Τα σύμβολα είναι συχνά τρόποι έκφρασης των θρησκευτικών και ιδεολογικών αντιλήψεων ενός εργαζόμενου και συνεπώς η χρήση τους προστατεύεται στο πλαίσιο της απαγόρευσης διακρίσεων.O εργαζόμενος όταν εισέρχεται στο χώρο εργασίας, διατηρεί την ταυτότητα του και ο εργοδότης οφείλει να σέβεται την προσωπικότητα του πρώτου. Πλήθος αποφάσεων του Δικαστηρίου της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης όσο και του Ευρωπαϊκού Δικαστηρίου Ανθρωπίνων Δικαιωμάτων έχουν ασχοληθεί με τις διακρίσεις που συμβαίνουν στο χώρο εργασίας και οφείλονται στο ότι ο εργαζόμενος είναι φορέας ορισμένης θρησκείας ή πεποιθήσεων, χαράσσοντας ορισμένες σημαντικές κατευθυντήριες γραμμές στην αντιμετώπιση τους. Με το ζήτημα αυτό έχουν ασχοληθεί και τα δικαστήρια διαφόρων χωρών σε εθνικό επίπεδο, εισφέροντας νέες προοπτικές στην αντιμετώπιση των διακρίσεων. Η Οδηγία 2000/78 μεταφέρθηκε στο ελληνικό δίκαιο με το ν.4443/2016, προστατεύοντας τους εργαζόμενους από διακρίσεις στο χώρο εργασίας, θέτοντας ωστόσο και ορισμένες εξαιρέσεις. Η πολιτική θρησκευτικής ουδετερότητας όπως και οι επιθυμίες των πελατών είναι επίσης σημαντικές όψεις του ζητήματος .Στην εργασία αυτή αναλύονται, μεταξύ άλλων, οι κυρώσεις που επιβάλλονται στον εργοδότη σε περίπτωση παράβασης της υποχρέωσης του να μη επιτρέπει δυσμενείς διακρίσεις στο χώρο της επιχείρησης του, όπως επίσης και το βάρος απόδειξης των πραγματικών περιστατικών.This paper will address the issue of protection against discrimination based on religion or belief in the workplace. Experience has shown that employees in their professional careers are often discriminated because of personal characteristics. Symbols are often ways of expressing an employee’s religious and ideological views and therefore their use is protected in the context of anti-discrimination protection. The employee when entering the company retains his identity and the employer must respect his personality. Numerous judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union and of the European Court of Human Rights have dealt with discrimination in the workplace on the grounds that the worker is a member of a particular religion or belief, setting out important guidelines for dealing with them. The courts of various countries have also addressed this issue at national level, offering new perspectives on tackling discrimination. Directive 2000/78 was transposed into Greek law by law 4443/2016, protecting employees from discrimination in the workplace, but also setting some exceptions. The policy of religious neutrality as well as the wishes of the clients are also important aspects of the issue. This paper analyzes, inter alia, the penalties imposed on the employer in case of breach of his obligation not to allow discrimination in the area of his business, as well as the burden of proving the facts

Identification and Functional Characterization of Polycomb Group Complexes in Drosophila

Polycomb group (PcG) and trithorax group (trxG) proteins were first discovered in Drosophila as repressors and activators of homeotic (HOX) genes, a set of transcription factors that specify cell identity along the anteroposterior axis of segmented animals. Subsequent work has shown that PcG and trxG proteins form multimeric complexes that are not required to initiate the regulation of HOX genes, but rather to maintain their expression state after the initial transcriptional regulators disappear from the embryo. The patterns of homeotic gene expression are initially set by the gap and pair-rule gene products. The early expressed gap and pair rule proteins disappear by about four hours of embryogenesis. Then, the PcG proteins maintain transcriptional repression of homeotic genes in cells where the initial expression state is off (McKeon et al., 1994; Simon et al., 1992; Struhl and Akam, 1985). In contrast, the trxG proteins maintain homeotic gene expression in cells where the initial expression state is on (reviewed in Kennison, 1993). By definition, an epigenetic trait is a stably heritable phenotype resulting from changes in a chromosome without alterations in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression is necessary for the correct deployment of developmental programs and for the maintenance of cell fates. Since PcG proteins are responsible for the stable propagation of homeotic gene repression, after the initial decision has been made by other factors, they are referred as epigenetic regulators. Recent studies provide evidence that the PcG maintenance system regulates many other target genes in addition to homeotic genes, involved in development, cell proliferation, stem cell identity and cancer (Martinez and Cavalli, 2006; Ringrose and Paro 2004; Schwartz and Pirrotta 2007; Sparmann and van Lohuizen 2006)

Chromatin and oxygen sensing in the context of JmjC histone demethylases

Responding appropriately to changes in oxygen availability is essential for multicellular organism survival. Molecularly, cells have evolved intricate gene expression programmes to handle this stressful condition. Although it is appreciated that gene expression is co-ordinated by changes in transcription and translation in hypoxia, much less is known about how chromatin changes allow for transcription to take place. The missing link between co-ordinating chromatin structure and the hypoxia-induced transcriptional programme could be in the form of a class of dioxygenases called JmjC (Jumonji C) enzymes, the majority of which are histone demethylases. In the present review, we will focus on the function of JmjC histone demethylases, and how these could act as oxygen sensors for chromatin in hypoxia. The current knowledge concerning the role of JmjC histone demethylases in the process of organism development and human disease will also be reviewed

Essential Functions of the Histone Demethylase Lid

Drosophila Little imaginal discs (Lid) is a recently described member of the JmjC domain class of histone demethylases that specifically targets trimethylated histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3). To understand its biological function, we have utilized a series of Lid deletions and point mutations to assess the role that each domain plays in histone demethylation, in animal viability, and in cell growth mediated by the transcription factor dMyc. Strikingly, we find that lid mutants are rescued to adulthood by either wildtype or enzymatically inactive Lid expressed under the control of its endogenous promoter, demonstrating that Lid's demethylase activity is not essential for development. In contrast, ubiquitous expression of UAS-Lid transgenes lacking its JmjN, C-terminal PHD domain, and C5HC2 zinc finger were unable to rescue lid homozygous mutants, indicating that these domains carry out Lid's essential developmental functions. Although Lid-dependent demethylase activity is not essential, dynamic removal of H3K4me3 may still be an important component of development, as we have observed a genetic interaction between lid and another H3K4me3 demethylase, dKDM2. We also show that Lid's essential C-terminal PHD finger binds specifically to di- and trimethylated H3K4 and that this activity is required for Lid to function in dMyc-induced cell growth. Taken together, our findings highlight the importance of Lid function in the regulated removal and recognition of H3K4me3 during development

Genome-Wide uH2A Localization Analysis Highlights Bmi1-Dependent Deposition of the Mark at Repressed Genes

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins control organism development by regulating the expression of developmental genes. Transcriptional regulation by PcG proteins is achieved, at least partly, through the PRC2-mediated methylation on lysine 27 of histone H3 (H3K27) and PRC1-mediated ubiquitylation on lysine 119 of histone H2A (uH2A). As an integral component of PRC1, Bmi1 has been demonstrated to be critical for H2A ubiquitylation. Although recent studies have revealed the genome-wide binding patterns of some of the PRC1 and PRC2 components, as well as the H3K27me3 mark, there have been no reports describing genome-wide localization of uH2A. Using the recently developed ChIP-Seq technology, here, we report genome-wide localization of the Bmi1-dependent uH2A mark in MEF cells. Gene promoter averaging analysis indicates a peak of uH2A just inside the transcription start site (TSS) of well-annotated genes. This peak is enriched at promoters containing the H3K27me3 mark and represents the least expressed genes in WT MEF cells. In addition, peak finding reveals regions of local uH2A enrichment throughout the mouse genome, including almost 700 gene promoters. Genes with promoter peaks of uH2A exhibit lower-level expression when compared to genes that do not contain promoter peaks of uH2A. Moreover, we demonstrate that genes with uH2A peaks have increased expression upon Bmi1 knockout. Importantly, local enrichment of uH2A is not limited to regions containing the H3K27me3 mark. We describe the enrichment of H2A ubiquitylation at high-density CpG promoters and provide evidence to suggest that DNA methylation may be linked to uH2A at these regions. Thus, our work not only reveals Bmi1-dependent H2A ubiquitylation, but also suggests that uH2A targeting in differentiated cells may employ a different mechanism from that in ES cells

RYBP stimulates PRC1 to shape chromatin-based communication between Polycomb repressive complexes

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins function as chromatin-based transcriptional repressors that are essential for normal gene regulation during development. However, how these systems function to achieve transcriptional regulation remains very poorly understood. Here, we discover that the histone H2AK119 E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of Polycomb repressive complex 1 (PRC1) is defined by the composition of its catalytic subunits and is highly regulated by RYBP/YAF2- dependent stimulation. In mouse embryonic stem cells, RYBP plays a central role in shaping H2AK119 mono-ubiquitylation at PcG targets and underpins an activity-based communication between PRC1 and Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) which is required for normal histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3). Without normal histone modification-dependent communication between PRC1 and PRC2, repressive Polycomb chromatin domains can erode, rendering target genes susceptible to inappropriate gene expression signals. This suggests that activity-based communication and histone modification-dependent thresholds create a localized form of epigenetic memory required for normal PcG chromatin domain function in gene regulation

Variant PRC1 Complex-Dependent H2A Ubiquitylation Drives PRC2 Recruitment and Polycomb Domain Formation

Chromatin modifying activities inherent to polycomb repressive complexes PRC1 and PRC2 play an essential role in gene regulation, cellular differentiation, and development. However, the mechanisms by which these complexes recognize their target sites and function together to form repressive chromatin domains remain poorly understood. Recruitment of PRC1 to target sites has been proposed to occur through a hierarchical process, dependent on prior nucleation of PRC2 and placement of H3K27me3. Here, using a de novo targeting assay in mouse embryonic stem cells we unexpectedly discover that PRC1-dependent H2AK119ub1 leads to recruitment of PRC2 and H3K27me3 to effectively initiate a polycomb domain. This activity is restricted to variant PRC1 complexes, and genetic ablation experiments reveal that targeting of the variant PCGF1/PRC1 complex by KDM2B to CpG islands is required for normal polycomb domain formation and mouse development. These observations provide a surprising PRC1-dependent logic for PRC2 occupancy at target sites in vivo.This study was funded by the Wellcome Trust (WT0834922 and WT081385), CRUK (C28585/A10839), NIHR, EMBO, Lister Institute of Preventative Medicine, RIKEN, MEXT, and JST CRES

Kicking against the PRCs - a domesticated transposase antagonises silencing mediated by polycomb group proteins and is an accessory component of polycomb repressive complex 2

The Polycomb group (PcG) and trithorax group (trxG) genes play crucial roles in development by regulating expression of homeotic and other genes controlling cell fate. Both groups catalyse modifications of chromatin, particularly histone methylation, leading to epigenetic changes that affect gene activity. The trxG antagonizes the function of PcG genes by activating PcG target genes, and consequently trxG mutants suppress PcG mutant phenotypes. We previously identified the ANTAGONIST OF LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN1 (ALP1) gene as a genetic suppressor of mutants in the Arabidopsis PcG gene LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN1 (LHP1). Here, we show that ALP1 interacts genetically with several other PcG and trxG components and that it antagonizes PcG silencing. Transcriptional profiling reveals that when PcG activity is compromised numerous target genes are hyper-activated in seedlings and that in most cases this requires ALP1. Furthermore, when PcG activity is present ALP1 is needed for full activation of several floral homeotic genes that are repressed by the PcG. Strikingly, ALP1 does not encode a known chromatin protein but rather a protein related to PIF/Harbinger class transposases. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that ALP1 is broadly conserved in land plants and likely lost transposase activity and acquired a novel function during angiosperm evolution. Consistent with this, immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry (IP-MS) show that ALP1 associates, in vivo, with core components of POLYCOMB REPRESSIVE COMPLEX 2 (PRC2), a widely conserved PcG protein complex which functions as a H3K27me3 histone methyltransferase. Furthermore, in reciprocal pulldowns using the histone methyltransferase CURLY LEAF (CLF), we identify not only ALP1 and the core PRC2 components but also plant-specific accessory components including EMBRYONIC FLOWER 1 (EMF1), a transcriptional repressor previously associated with PRC1-like complexes. Taken together our data suggest that ALP1 inhibits PcG silencing by blocking the interaction of the core PRC2 with accessory components that promote its HMTase activity or its role in inhibiting transcription. ALP1 is the first example of a domesticated transposase acquiring a novel function as a PcG component. The antagonistic interaction of a modified transposase with the PcG machinery is novel and may have arisen as a means for the cognate transposon to evade host surveillance or for the host to exploit features of the transposition machinery beneficial for epigenetic regulation of gene activity.Fil: Liang, Shih Chieh. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Hartwig, Ben. Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research; AlemaniaFil: Perera, Pumi. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Mora Garcia, Santiago. Fundación Instituto Leloir; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Parque Centenario. Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquimicas de Buenos Aires; ArgentinaFil: de Leau, Erica. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Thornton, Harry. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Lima de Alves, Flavia. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Rapsilber, Juri. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Yang, Suxin. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: James, Geo Velikkakam. Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research; AlemaniaFil: Schneeberger, Korbinian. Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research; AlemaniaFil: Finnegan, E. Jean. University of Edinburgh; Reino UnidoFil: Turck, Franziska. Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research; AlemaniaFil: Goodrich, Justin. Mc Gill University; Canad

Η ποινική ευθύνη του μαιευτήρα-γυναικολόγου

Η ιατρική συνιστά μία συνεχώς εξελισσόμενη επιστήμη η οποία διαφυλάττει την υγεία και τη ζωή των ανθρώπων πάντα όμως μέσα σε ένα πλαίσιο υποχρεώσεων και δεοντολογικών κανόνων. Το ζήτημα της ιατρικής ευθύνης είναι ιδιαζούσης σημασίας, κάτι που φαίνεται ξεκάθαρα και από το γεγονός πως βρίσκουμε κανόνες για την ιατρική ευθύνη ήδη από το 18ο αιώνα π.Χ. , στο βαβυλωνιακό κώδικα , γνωστό και ως κώδικα του Χαμουραμπί. Η ιατρική ποινική ευθύνη στην Ελλάδα συνδέεται κυρίως με τις διατάξεις που αφορούν τη σωματική βλάβη και την ανθρωποκτονία εξ αμελείας. Βασική προϋπόθεση για την νόμιμη τέλεση οποιαδήποτε ιατρικής πράξης συνιστά η ενημέρωση του ασθενούς και η έγκυρη συναίνεση του. Η ποινική αξιολόγηση της ιατρικής επέμβασης βασίζεται κυρίως στην lege artis διεξαγωγή της και στην ενημερωμένη συναίνεση του ασθενούς. Ο ιατρός έχει πλήρη ευθύνη για ό,τι πράττει κατά την εκτέλεση των καθηκόντων του. Ο ιατρός βαρύνεται με ευθύνη όχι για την επίτευξη της καλής υγείας του ασθενούς αλλά για την ορθή εφαρμογή των κανόνων και των μέσων που προσφέρει η ιατρική. Η αναμενόμενη συμπεριφορά ενός μέσου, ευσυνείδητου ιατρού συνιστά θεμελιώδες κριτήριο για τη στοιχειοθέτηση της ιατρικής ευθύνης. Ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει και η συγκλίνουσα αμέλεια σε περιπτώσεις συνεργαζόμενης ιατρικής ομάδας. Σε ορισμένα θέματα όπως η έναρξη της ανθρώπινης ζωής η νομολογία μας παραμένει κυμαινόμενη. Μετά τις νεότερες τροποποιήσεις όμως του ποινικού κώδικα υφίστανται πλέον περισσότερες διατάξεις που προστατεύουν το έμβρυο. Κατά την αναζήτηση της ποινικής ευθύνης του ιατρού, σημαντικό είναι να ελέγξουμε την ύπαρξη στο πρόσωπο του λόγων άρσεως του αδίκου ή του καταλογισμού. Ορισμένοι θεωρητικοί κυρίως στη Γαλλία υποστηρίζουν ότι η αύξηση των μηνύσεων κατά ιατρών αυξάνει σε αυτούς το αίσθημα του φόβου και περιορίζει την πρωτοβουλία. Η ιατρική ποινική ευθύνη στις περισσότερες ευρωπαϊκές χώρες συνδέεται με τις διατάξεις για τις σωματικές βλάβες. Μόνο στην Αυστρία και την Πορτογαλία υφίσταται ορισμένες ειδικές διατάξεις για την ιατρική ποινική ευθύνη. Ωστόσο στις περισσότερες ευρωπαϊκές χώρες παρατηρείται μία έντονη συζήτηση στους νομικούς κύκλους για την ανάγκη θέσπισης ειδικών διατάξεων.Medicine is an ever-evolving science that safeguards health and life, but always within a framework of obligations and ethical rules. The issue of medical liability is of particular importance, which is clearly demonstrated by the fact that we find rules for medical liability as early as the 18th century BC. , in the Babylonian Code, also known as the Code of Hammurabi. Medical criminal liability in Greece is mainly linked to provisions relating to physical injury and homicide by negligence. A basic precondition for the lawful performance of any medical practice is to inform the patient and to give their consent. Criminal evaluation of medical intervention is mainly based on its lege artis performance and informed consent of the patient. The physician is fully responsible for what he or she does in the performance of their duties. The physician is responsible not for the achievement of the patient's good health but for the proper application of the rules and instruments offered by medicine. The expected behavior of an average, conscientious practitioner is a fundamental criterion for establishing medical liability. It is also of interest that the convergent negligence in cases of a cooperating medical team. In some matters, such as the beginning of human life, our case-law remains fluctuating. However, with the newer amendments to the Criminal Code, there are now more provisions protecting the fetus. When looking for a doctor's criminal liability, it is important to check the existence of wrongful conviction or imputation. Some theorists, mainly in France, argue that raising lawsuits against doctors increases their fear and restricts the initiative. Medical criminal liability in most European countries is linked to the provisions on physical injury. Only in Austria and Portugal are there specific provisions on medical liability. However, in most European countries there is a heated debate about the need for specific provisions