Verhaften oder verhandeln: der Internationale Strafgerichtshof und seine Auswirkungen auf die politischen Handlungsoptionen am Beispiel Libyen

"Seit dem 26. Februar 2011 befasst sich der Internationale Strafgerichtshof (IStGH) mit den in Libyen verübten schwersten Verbrechen. In diesem Zusammenhang haben die Richter des IStGH am 27. Juni 2011 Haftbefehle gegen bislang drei Personen, darunter Muammer el-Khadafi, erlassen. Die folgende Analyse konzentriert sich auf die Fragen, in welchem Rahmen der IStGH tätig werden kann und welche Auswirkungen die strafverfolgende Tätigkeit des IStGH auf den Konflikt in Libyen hat. Dabei kommt die Analyse zu folgenden Ergebnissen: Mit der Mandatierung des IStGH in einer Situation1 wird der politische Verhandlungsspielraum deutlich eingeschränkt. Dabei tritt der IStGH als eigene Völkerrechtsperson auf. Politische Absprachen müssen folglich die richterlichen Entscheidungen nicht nur respektieren, sondern diese auch einkalkulieren. Eine vorübergehende Einstellung der Ermittlungen oder eines Verfahrens ist dabei nur durch die entsprechende Mehrheit im Sicherheitsrat zu erwirken. Deshalb kann Straffreiheit nicht mehr garantiert werden und ist somit auch kein Anreiz zum Machtverzicht. Die Befassung des IStGH hat zudem Auswirkungen auf die Konfliktbeteiligten. Dabei unterscheidet der IStGH nicht nach politischen Interessen und Agenden, sondern urteilt über die individuelle strafrechtliche Verantwortlichkeit. Dies kann dazu führen, dass Machthaber, die schwerste Verbrechen begangen haben, sich noch fester an ihre Macht klammern und diese mit Gewalt durchsetzen wollen. Dagegen dürften Personen, die sich derartiger Verbrechen noch nicht schuldig gemacht haben, sich davon stärker distanzieren wollen. Zudem scheinen die Ermittlungen des IStGH auch das Bewusstsein in der Region für eine strafrechtliche Verfolgung von Verbrechen gegen die Menschlichkeit zu erhöhen und Prozesse hinsichtlich einer Ratifizierung des Rom-Statuts anzuregen. So fördert die Auseinandersetzung mit dem IStGH etwa in Afrika eine größere Selbstreflexion hinsichtlich der Einhaltung der Afrikanischen Charta. Der IStGH ist kein Allheilmittel bei der Konfliktbefriedung, sondern kann dazu nur einen juristischen Beitrag leisten. Zudem ist er auf den politischen Willen der Staaten angewiesen. Wo bzw. wann Völkerstrafrecht angewandt wird, bleibt dabei auch eine Frage von politischen Interessen. Mächtige Staaten sind nach wie vor prinzipiell wenig daran interessiert, eine unabhängige internationale Strafgerichtsbarkeit nachdrücklich zu unterstützen. Deshalb werden schwerste Verbrechen noch immer nicht überall mit gleicher Konsequenz verfolgt." (Autorenreferat)"Since February 26, 2011 the International Criminal Court has been dealing with the most serious crimes in Libya. In this context, the ICC judges have issued arrest warrants for three people, among them Muammar al-Qaddafi. The following analysis focuses on the questions under what conditions the ICC can act and what impact the ICC’s work has had on the conflict in Libya. The paper comes to the following conclusions: The ICC’s authorization regarding a situation considerably limits the political room to negotiate, since the ICC reveals itself as an independent subject of international law. Therefore political agreements not only have to respect but also consider judicial orders. A temporary deferral of an investigation or prosecution can only be obtained through a suitable majority within the Security Council. Consequently, assurances of impunity cannot be guaranteed and there are thus no more incentives to resign. The ICC impacts the people involved in the conflict. The ICC does not, however, distinguish between political interests and agendas, but rather makes judgments on individual criminal responsibility. As a result, rulers who have committed serious crimes cling even more so to power and violence. At the same time, it can also be a reason for people who have not become perpetrators to dissociate themselves from such crimes. Furthermore, the ICC’s investigations concerning Libya seem to have sensitized the consciousness in the region with respect to the prosecution of crimes against humanity and to have stimulated ratification processes for the Rome Statute. Thus, the debate on the ICC in Africa for example already fosters greater self-reflection regarding compliance with the African Charter. The ICC is not a panacea for conflict solution. It can complement, however, other measures and make a judicial contribution to it. Moreover, the Court depends on the political will of states. Where and when international law can be applied is also a question of political interests. It is notable that powerful states are principally less inclined to unconditionally support an independent international criminal jurisdiction. Accordingly, penalties for the most serious crimes are still not pursued with the same consistency." (author's abstract

Experimental long-distance haplotyping of OCA2-HERC2 variants

The regulatory HERC2 SNP, rs12913832, is strongly associated with blue and brown eye colour. However, eye colour in heterozygous rs12913832 individuals is observed to vary greatly. Missense mutations in OCA2, such as rs1800407 and rs74653330, are associated with lighter eye colour in some but not all heterozygous rs12913832 individuals. Determining the physical linkage of these variants might help to further explain eye colour variation. So far, experimental haplotyping of these variants has been challenging because the genomic distance between them (~ 135 kb) exceeds the fragment lengths produced by commonly used DNA isolation kits. The aim for this study was to explore novel methods for long distance haplotyping to assess associations between OCA2-HERC2 haplotypes and eye colour. DNA was isolated from frozen blood samples collected from Norwegians that are known to be heterozygous for both HERC2 rs12913832 and OCA2 SNPs, either rs1800407 (n = 23) or rs74653330 (n = 17), using the newly commercially available Monarch® HMW (heigh molecular weight) DNA Extraction Kit (New England BioLabsinc). We successfully isolated DNA fragments up to 210 kb, which were long enough to haplotype OCA2-HERC2 loci by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR). Three haplotypes were observed in the study population: rs12913832:A-rs1800407:T in 22/23 individuals, rs12913832:A-rs1800407:C in 1/23 individuals and rs12913832:A-rs74653330:T in 16/16 individuals. As expected, all individuals with the rs12913832:A-rs74653330:T haplotype had intermediate to blue eye colour. However, the rs12913832:Ars1800407:T haplotype was observed in both blue and brown-eyed individuals, suggesting more research is needed

Association between copy number variations in the OCA2-HERC2 locus and human eye colour

Human eye colour variation is strongly associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the OCA2- HERC2 locus, especially rs12913832 that is found in an enhancer element of OCA2. In a previous study we found that 43 out of 166 individuals in a Norwegian population with the brown eye colour genotype HERC2 rs12913832:AA or AG, did not have the expected brown eye colour. To investigate if duplications or deletions in the OCA2-HERC2 locus could explain the blue eye colour in these individuals, we analysed massively parallel sequencing (MPS) data for copy number variations (CNVs) in the OCA2-HERC2 region. The ~500 kb long OCA2- HERC2 locus was sequenced in 94 individuals with the rs12913832:AG and AA genotypes. Of these, 43 were observed to have blue eye colour and 51 were observed to have brown eye colour. CNVs were analysed using R and the R-package panelcn.MOPS - CNV detection tool for targeted NGS panel data. In rs12913832:AG individuals, CNVs in 32 regions were significantly associated with blue eye colour (Benjamini-Hochberg adjusted pvalue ≤ 0.05). In rs12913832:AA individuals, CNVs in 14 regions were associated with blue eye colour using raw p-values (p ≤ 0.05). The functional effects of these CNVs on OCA2 expression are yet to be investigated. However, this study suggests that CNVs in the OCA2-HERC2 locus might explain why some of the rs12913832:AG and AA individuals have unexpectedly blue eyes

Association between Variants in the OCA2-HERC2 Region and Blue Eye Colour in HERC2 rs12913832 AA and AG Individuals

The OCA2-HERC2 region is strongly associated with human pigmentation, especially eye colour. The HERC2 SNP rs12913832 is currently the best-known predictor for blue and brown eye colour. However, in a previous study we found that 43 of 166 Norwegians with the brown eye colour genotype rs12913832:AA or AG, did not have the expected brown eye colour. In this study, we carried out massively parallel sequencing of a ~500 kbp HERC2-OCA2 region in 94 rs12913832:AA and AG Norwegians (43 blue-eyed and 51 brown-eyed) to search for novel blue eye colour variants. The new candidate variants were subsequently typed in a Norwegian biobank population (total n = 519) for population specific association analysis. We identified five new variants, rs74409036:A, rs78544415:T, rs72714116:T, rs191109490:C and rs551217952:C, to be the most promising candidates for explaining blue eye colour in individuals with the rs12913832:AA and AG genotype. Additionally, we confirmed the association of the missense variants rs74653330:T and rs121918166:T with blue eye colour, and observed lighter skin colour in rs74653330:T individuals. In total, 37 (86%) of the 43 blue-eyed rs12913832:AA and AG Norwegians could potentially be explained by these seven variants, and we suggest including them in future prediction models

Prediction of Eye Colour in Scandinavians Using the EyeColour 11 (EC11) SNP Set

Description of a perpetrator’s eye colour can be an important investigative lead in a forensic case with no apparent suspects. Herein, we present 11 SNPs (Eye Colour 11-EC11) that are important for eye colour prediction and eye colour prediction models for a two-category reporting system (blue and brown) and a three-category system (blue, intermediate, and brown). The EC11 SNPs were carefully selected from 44 pigmentary variants in seven genes previously found to be associated with eye colours in 757 Europeans (Danes, Swedes, and Italians). Mathematical models using three different reporting systems: a quantitative system (PIE-score), a two-category system (blue and brown), and a three-category system (blue, intermediate, brown) were used to rank the variants. SNPs with a sufficient mean variable importance (above 0.3%) were selected for EC11. Eye colour prediction models using the EC11 SNPs were developed using leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) in an independent data set of 523 Norwegian individuals. Performance of the EC11 models for the two- and three-category system was compared with models based on the IrisPlex SNPs and the most important eye colour locus, rs12913832. We also compared model performances with the IrisPlex online tool (IrisPlex Web). The EC11 eye colour prediction models performed slightly better than the IrisPlex and rs12913832 models in all reporting systems and better than the IrisPlex Web in the three-category system. Three important points to consider prior to the implementation of eye colour prediction in a forensic genetic setting are discussed: (1) the reference population, (2) the SNP set, and (3) the reporting strategy

Canadian 24-hour movement guidelines for adults aged 18-64 years and adults aged 65 years or older: an integration of physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep

The Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology assembled a Consensus Panel representing national organizations, content experts, methodologists, stakeholders, and end-users and followed an established guideline development procedure to create the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Adults aged 18-64 years and Adults aged 65 years or older: An Integration of Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour, and Sleep. These guidelines underscore the importance of movement behaviours across the whole 24-h day. The development process followed the strategy outlined in the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) II instrument. A large body of evidence was used to inform the guidelines including 2 de novo systematic reviews and 4 overviews of reviews examining the relationships among movement behaviours (physical activity, sedentary behaviour, sleep, and all behaviours together) and several health outcomes. Draft guideline recommendations were discussed at a 4-day in-person Consensus Panel meeting. Feedback from stakeholders was obtained by survey (n = 877) and the draft guidelines were revised accordingly. The final guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations for a healthy day (24-h), comprising a combination of sleep, sedentary behaviours, and light-intensity and moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity. Dissemination and implementation efforts with corresponding evaluation plans are in place to help ensure that guideline awareness and use are optimized. Novelty First ever 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Adults aged 18-64 years and Adults aged 65 years or older with consideration of a balanced approach to physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep Finalizes the suite of 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Canadians across the lifespa

Genetic relationships of European, Mediterranean, and SW Asian populations using a panel of 55 AISNPs

The set of 55 ancestry informative SNPs (AISNPs) originally developed by the Kidd Lab has been studied on a large number of populations and continues to be applied to new population samples. The existing reference database of population samples allows the relationships of new population samples to be inferred on a global level. Analyses show that these autosomal markers constitute one of the better panels of AISNPs. Continuing to build this reference database enhances its value. Because more than half of the 25 ethnic groups recently studied with these AISNPs are from Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region, we present here various analyses focused on populations from these regions along with selected reference populations from nearby regions where genotype data are available. Many of these ethnic groups have not been previously studied for forensic markers. Data on populations from other world regions have also been added to the database but are not included in these focused analyses. The new population samples added to ALFRED and FROG-kb increase the total to 164 population samples that have been studied for all 55 AISNPs

The genetic basis and enigmatic origin of melanic polymorphism in pomarine skuas (Stercorarius pomarinus).

A key outstanding issue in adaptive evolution is the relationship between the genetics of intraspecific polymorphism and interspecific evolution. Here, we show that the pale/dark ventral plumage polymorphism that occurs in both the pomarine skua (Stercorarius pomarinus) and Arctic skua (S. parasiticus) is the result of convergent evolution at the same locus (MC1R), involving some of the same amino acid sites. The dark melanic MC1R allele in the pomarine skua is strongly divergent from the pale MC1R alleles. Whereas the dark allele is closely related to MC1R alleles in three species of great skua (S. skua, S. maccormicki, S. lonnbergi), the pale pomarine skua MC1R alleles present a star-like pattern in an intermediate position on the haplotype network, closer to alleles of the long-tailed skua (S. longicaudus). Variation at other nuclear loci confirms a close relationship between the pomarine skua and the great skuas. The plumage polymorphism in pomarine skuas might have arisen in the common ancestor of pomarine and great skuas, only being retained in pomarine skuas. Alternatively, the pale and melanic MC1R alleles may have evolved independently in different lineages and been brought together in pomarine skuas by hybridization. In this case, introgression of a pale MC1R allele into the pomarine skua from another skua lineage is most likely. Our current data do not permit us to distinguish between these hypotheses, and assaying genome-wide variation holds much promise in this regard. Nevertheless, we have uncovered an intriguing example of a functionally important allele within one species that is shared across species

The genetic basis and enigmatic origin of melanic polymorphism in pomarine skuas (Stercorarius pomarinus).

A key outstanding issue in adaptive evolution is the relationship between the genetics of intraspecific polymorphism and interspecific evolution. Here, we show that the pale/dark ventral plumage polymorphism that occurs in both the pomarine skua (Stercorarius pomarinus) and Arctic skua (S. parasiticus) is the result of convergent evolution at the same locus (MC1R), involving some of the same amino acid sites. The dark melanic MC1R allele in the pomarine skua is strongly divergent from the pale MC1R alleles. Whereas the dark allele is closely related to MC1R alleles in three species of great skua (S. skua, S. maccormicki, S. lonnbergi), the pale pomarine skua MC1R alleles present a star-like pattern in an intermediate position on the haplotype network, closer to alleles of the long-tailed skua (S. longicaudus). Variation at other nuclear loci confirms a close relationship between the pomarine skua and the great skuas. The plumage polymorphism in pomarine skuas might have arisen in the common ancestor of pomarine and great skuas, only being retained in pomarine skuas. Alternatively, the pale and melanic MC1R alleles may have evolved independently in different lineages and been brought together in pomarine skuas by hybridization. In this case, introgression of a pale MC1R allele into the pomarine skua from another skua lineage is most likely. Our current data do not permit us to distinguish between these hypotheses, and assaying genome-wide variation holds much promise in this regard. Nevertheless, we have uncovered an intriguing example of a functionally important allele within one species that is shared across species

Data from: Molecular population genetics of the melanic plumage polymorphism in arctic skuas (Stercorarius parasiticus): evidence for divergent selection on plumage colour

The arctic skua (Stercorarius parasiticus) is a classic example of an avian plumage polymorphism, with variation in melanin-based ventral plumage coloration defining pale, intermediate and dark morphs in adults of both sexes. However, despite several decades of field research, there is an incomplete understanding of how the polymorphism in ventral plumage colour is maintained and the selective forces involved. Here we investigate selection on a locus (MC1R) that is strongly associated with plumage colour variation in arctic skuas using patterns of nucleotide variation and comparison to neutral loci (nuclear introns and mtDNA). We find that three linked non-synonymous mutations in MC1R, including the single mutation described previously, are associated with plumage colour in the arctic skua. The position of non-synonymous mutations on a MC1R haplotype network implies that divergent selection drove the initial evolution of the colour morphs. Comparisons of FSTs of MC1R vs. nuclear introns among five skua populations differing in proportion of dark morphs along an approximate north-south cline reveals a signature of divergent selection on MC1R. In contrast, we find limited evidence for balancing selection on MC1R within populations, although the power is low. Our results provide strong evidence for both past and ongoing selection on MC1R, and, by implication, plumage colour in arctic skuas. The results suggest that a fruitful avenue for future ecological studies will be analysis of selection on morphs in colonies at the extremes along the morph ratio cline