Neural Mechanisms of Feeding Behavior and Its Disorders

There are two forms of feeding behavior. The hypothalamus and the lower brainstem monitor the internal environment of the body and are involved in the control of feeding behavior to maintain energy balance and homeostasis (homeostasis-dependent feeding behavior). On the other hand, humans and animals, when placed in an environment similar to modern society (e.g., cafeterias), where organisms can easily ingest highly preferred foods, consume more than necessary (homeostasis-independent feeding behavior). The emotion/reward system, including the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, is involved in this type of feeding behavior. These two control systems interact in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), where feeding behavior is controlled by systems with higher activity. In modern society, there is abundant information on food, and high-calorie foods such as snacks are readily available. Thus, in modern society, the homeostasis-independent control system easily surpasses the homeostasis-dependent control system, which results in obesity. Various feeding and eating disorders might be ascribed to dysregulations in the two control systems. In the future, more effective treatments for feeding and eating disorders can be developed by elucidating the mechanisms of these two control systems

Transitionality in addiction: A "temporal continuum" hypotheses involving the aberrant motivation, the hedonic dysregulation, and the aberrant learning

Abstract Addiction is a chronic compulsion and relapsing disorder. It involves several brain areas and circuits, which encode vary functions such as reward, motivation, and memory. Drug addiction is defined as a "pathological pattern of use of a substance", characterized by the loss of control on drug-taking-related behaviors, the pursuance of those behaviors even in the presence of negative consequences, and a strong motivated activity to assume substances. Three different theories guide experimental research on drug addiction. Each of these theories consider singles features, such as an aberrant motivation, a hedonic dysregulation, and an aberrant habit learning as the main actor to explain the entire process of the addictive behaviors. The major goal of this study is to present a new hypotheses of transitionality from a controlled use to abuse of addictive substances trough the overview of the three different theories, considering all the single features of each single theory together on the same "temporal continuum" from use to abuse of addictive substances. Recently, it has been suggested that common neural systems may be activated by natural and pharmacological stimuli, raising the hypotheses that binge-eating disorders could be considered as addictive behaviors. The second goal of this study is to present evidences in order to highlight a possible psycho-bio-physiological superimposition between drug and "food addiction". Finally, interesting questions are brought up starting from last findings about a theoretical/psycho-bio-physiological superimposition between drug and "food addiction" and their possibly same transitionality along the same "temporal continuum" from use to abuse of addictive substances in order to investigate new therapeutic strategies based on new therapeutic strategies based on the individual moments characterizing the transition from the voluntary intake of substances to the maladaptive addictive behavior

Cannabidiol affects MK-801-induced changes in the PPI Learned Response of Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus spp.)

There are several lines of evidence indicating a possible therapeutic action of cannabidiol (CBD) in schizophrenia treatment. Studies with rodents have demonstrated that CBD reverses MK-801 effects in prepulse inhibition (PPI) disruption, which may indicate that CBD acts by improving sensorimotor gating deficits. In the present study, we investigated the effects of CBD on a PPI learned response of capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.). A total of seven monkeys were employed in this study. In Experiment 1, we evaluated the CBD (doses of 15, 30, 60 mg/kg, i.p.) effects on PPI. In Experiment 2, the effects of sub-chronic MK-801 (0.02 mg/kg, i.m.) on PPI were challenged by a CBD pre-treatment. No changes in PPI response were observed after CBD-alone administration. However, MK-801 increased the PPI response of our animals. CBD pre-treatment blocked the PPI increase induced by MK-801. Our findings suggest that CBD’s reversal of the MK-801 effects on PPI is unlikely to stem from a direct involvement on sensorimotor mechanisms, but may possibly reflect its anxiolytic properties

Validation of a spectrophotometric method to determine ciprofibrate content in tablets

Ciprofibrate is a drug indicated in cases of hypertriglyceridemia and mixed hyperlipidemia, but no monographs are available in official compendia for the analysis of this substance in tablets. The objective of this work was to develop and validate a spectrophotometric method for routine analysis of ciprofibrate in tablets. In this study, commercial and standard ciprofibrate were used, as well as placebo in absolute ethanol, analyzed by UV spectrophotometer. All tests followed the rules of Resolution RE-899, 2003. The results showed that the developed and validated method offers low cost, easy implementation, precision and accuracy, and may be included in the routine of quality control laboratories.O ciprofibrato é um fármaco indicado em casos de hipertrigliceridemia e hiperlipidemia mista, mas não há monografias em compêndios oficiais para a análise desta substância em comprimidos. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver e validar um método espectrofotométrico para análise de rotina de ciprofibrato em comprimidos. Neste estudo foram empregados ciprofibrato comercial, padrão e placebo em etanol absoluto, analisadas por espectrofotometria UV. Todos os testes seguiram as regras da Resolução RE- 899, 2003. Os resultados mostraram que o método desenvolvido e validado apresenta baixo custo, fácil implementação, precisão e exatidão e pode ser incluído em rotina de laboratórios de controle de qualidade

A Statistic Method for Anatomical and Evolutionary Analysis

Rules, formulas, and statistical tests have been widely used in studies that analyze continuous variables with the normal (Gaussian) distribution or defined parameters. Nevertheless, in some studies such as those in gross anatomy, only statistics with discrete or nominal variables are available. In fact, the existence or absence of an anatomical structure, its features and internal aspects, innervation, arterial and vein supplies, etc. can be analyzed as discrete and/or nominal variables. However, there have been no adequate methods, which allow transformation of data with qualitative/nominal variables in gross anatomy to those with quantitative variables. To resolve the issue, we have purposed a new method that allows, in order, descriptions based on numerical analyses, the statistical method for comparative anatomy (SMCA), and proposed the formula for comparison of groups of anatomical structures among different species that allows to infer evolutionary perspective. The important features of this method are as follows: (1) to allow to analyze numerical data, which are converted from discrete or nominal variables in morphological areas and (2) to quantitatively compare identical structures within the same species and across different species. The SMCA fills the lack of a specific method for statistical works in comparative anatomy, morphology, in general, and evolutional correlations

Fast detector/first responder : interactions between the superior colliculus-pulvinar pathway and stimuli relevant to primates

Primates are distinguished from other mammals by their heavy reliance on the visual sense, which occurred as a result of natural selection continually favoring those individuals whose visual systems were more responsive to challenges in the natural world. Here we describe two independent but also interrelated visual systems, one cortical and the other subcortical, both of which have been modified and expanded in primates for different functions. Available evidence suggests that while the cortical visual system mainly functions to give primates the ability to assess and adjust to fluid social and ecological environments, the subcortical visual system appears to function as a rapid detector and first responder when time is of the essence, i.e., when survival requires very quick action. We focus here on the subcortical visual system with a review of behavioral and neurophysiological evidence that demonstrates its sensitivity to particular, often emotionally charged, ecological and social stimuli, i.e., snakes and fearful and aggressive facial expressions in conspecifics. We also review the literature on subcortical involvement during another, less emotional, situation that requires rapid detection and response—visually guided reaching and grasping during locomotion—to further emphasize our argument that the subcortical visual system evolved as a rapid detector/first responder, a function that remains in place today. Finally, we argue that investigating deficits in this subcortical system may provide greater understanding of Parkinson's disease and Autism Spectrum disorders (ASD)

A new technique for MR elastography of the supraspinatus muscle: A gradient-echo type multi-echo sequence.

Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) can measure tissue stiffness quantitatively and noninvasively. Supraspinatus muscle injury is a significant problem among throwing athletes. The purpose of this study was to develop an MRE technique for application to the supraspinatus muscle by using a conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRE acquisitions were performed with a gradient-echo type multi-echo MR sequence at 100 Hz pneumatic vibration. A custom-designed vibration pad was used as a pneumatic transducer in order to adapt to individual shoulder shapes. In a gradient-echo type multi-echo MR sequence, without motion encoding gradient (MEG) that synchronizes with vibrations, bipolar readout gradient lobes achieved a similar function to MEG (MEG-like effect). In other words, a dedicated MRE sequence (built-in MEG) is not always necessary for MRE. In this study, 7 healthy volunteers underwent MRE. We investigated the effects of direction of the MEG-like effect and selected imaging planes on the patterns of wave propagation (wave image). The results indicated that wave images showed clear wave propagation on a condition that the direction of the MEG-like effect was nearly perpendicular to the long axis of the supraspinatus muscle, and that the imaging plane was superior to the proximal supraspinatus muscle. This limited condition might be ascribed to specific features of fibers in the supraspinatus muscle and wave reflection from the boundaries of the supraspinous fossa. The mean stiffness of the supraspinatus muscle was 10.6 ± 3.17 kPa. Our results demonstrated that using MRE, our method can be applied to the supraspinatus muscle by using conventional MRI

Neuronal response sto face-like and facial stimuli in the monkey superior colliculus

The superficial layers of the superior colliculus (sSC) appear to function as a subcortical visual pathway that bypasses the striate cortex for the rapid processing of coarse facial information. We investigated the responses of neurons in the monkey sSC during a delayed non-matching-to-sample (DNMS) task in which monkeys were required to discriminate among five categories of visual stimuli [photos of faces with different gaze directions, line drawings of faces, face-like patterns (three dark blobs on a bright oval), eye-like patterns, and simple geometric patterns]. Of the 605 sSC neurons recorded, 216 neurons responded to the visual stimuli. Among the stimuli, face-like patterns elicited responses with the shortest latencies. Low-pass filtering of the images did not influence the responses. However, scrambling of the images increased the responses in the late phase, and this was consistent with a feedback influence from upstream areas. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis of the population data indicated that the sSC neurons could separately encode face-like patterns during the first 25-ms period after stimulus onset, and stimulus categorization developed in the next three 25-ms periods. The amount of stimulus information conveyed by the sSC neurons and the number of stimulus-differentiating neurons were consistently higher during the 2nd to 4th 25-ms periods than during the first 25-ms period. These results suggested that population activity of the sSC neurons preferentially filtered face-like patterns with short latencies to allow for the rapid processing of coarse facial information and developed categorization of the stimuli in later phases through feedback from upstream areas

Physiological effects of natural flagrance of “CEDROL” and cedrol for application to aromatherapy

匂い物質は，嗅覚神経系を介して行動発現や自律神経機能の調節などに関与する神経系（大脳辺縁系および視床下部）を賦活することにより，アロマセラピーの効果発現に関与していることが示唆されている．セドロールは，セダーウッド油から抽出した天然香料であり，セドロールを含むセダーウッドエッセンスはアロマセラピーに用いられていることから，自律神経機能に及ぼす作用が期待される．そこでセドロールを実験的に健常人に上気道から吸入させると，副交感神経の活動が有意に増大し，交感神経系の活動が有意に低下した．さらに，喉頭全摘除術を受けた被験者を用いて，上気道を介さずに下気道からセドロールを直接吸入させると，同様の効果が認められた．以上から，セドロールは嗅覚神経系だけでなく肺の迷走神経系を介して，交感神経系の活動や精神緊張を低下させる作用を有することが示唆された．これらのことは，セドロールがアロマセラピーに有用であることを示唆する．Odor substance is suggested to induce clinical effects of aromatherapy by stimulating the brain areas（limbic system and hypothalamus）involved in emotion and autonomic control through the olfactory system. Effects of pure compound （Cedrol） extracted from cedar wood oil on the cardiovascular system were investigated since cedar wood essence, which includes Cedrol, has been applied to aromatherapy. Vaporized Cedrol were presented to healthy human subjects via a face mask, which decreased sympathetic activity and increased parasympathetic activity. In the subsequent experiment, vaporized Cedrol was directly inhaled through the lower airway from a hole in the trachea of the totally laryngectomized subjects, but not through the upper airway. The experiment using the totally laryngectomized subjects replicated the similar results in healthy subjects who inhaled Cedrol through the nose. These results suggest that Cedrol acts on the peripheral nervous system （vagus nerve） innervating the lower airway and pulmonary system as well as the olfactory system in the upper airway. These results suggest usefulness of Cedrol for aromatherapy