11 research outputs found

    Implementing the EU Taxonomy Regulation for Swedish forest owners - EU reporting requirements for sustainable measures

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    VĂ€xthusgaser i atmosfĂ€ren har ökat stadigt sedan 1800-talet och mĂ€ngden koldioxid Ă€r den vĂ€xthusgas som har ökat mest. Höga halter av vĂ€xthusgaser har en negativ inverkan pĂ„ jorden och dess klimat. Medeltemperaturen för jorden har Ă€ven den ökat i takt med ökningen av vĂ€xthusgaser vilket fĂ„r förödande konsekvenser för bland annat jordens klimat. Det enda sĂ€ttet att bromsa den destruktiva trenden Ă€r att minska utslĂ€ppet av vĂ€xthusgaser. En i raden av mĂ„nga olika incitament och regleringar frĂ„n politiskt hĂ„ll för att bidra till begrĂ€nsningen av klimatförĂ€ndringarna Ă€r Europaparlamentet och rĂ„dets förordning 2020/852, Ă€ven kallad Taxonomin. I januari 2020 klubbades en del av Taxonomin igenom. Taxonomin syftar till att stimulera och styra ekonomiska investeringar till hĂ„llbara verksamheter. En av de branscher som behandlas under Taxonomin Ă€r skogsbruket. I en bilaga till Taxonomin finns tekniska granskningskriterier som mĂ„ste uppfyllas för att en fastighet vars produktiva areal överstiger 13 ha ska fĂ„ klassas som hĂ„llbar. I detta arbete har de tekniska granskningskriterierna analyserats och tolkats hur de kommer att pĂ„verka de svenska markĂ€garna ifall de vill uppfylla alla kriterier för att fĂ„ klassas som hĂ„llbar. Till att börja med utgĂ„r kriterierna frĂ„n att skogsĂ€garen har en skogsbruksplan över sin fastighet. Utöver alla delar som ingĂ„r i en vanlig skogsbruksplan tillkommer flertalet kriterier som mĂ„ste uppfyllas, exempelvis krĂ€vs en riskanalys. Utöver kraven kring skogsbruksplanen ska en klimatnyttoanalys utföras. För att bli klassad som hĂ„llbar mĂ„ste skogsĂ€garen kunna pĂ„visa att denne bedriver ett skogsbruk dĂ€r fastighetens totala kolmĂ€ngd inte understiger klimatnyttonalaysens referenscenario. Hur Taxonomin kommer att pĂ„verka de svenska markĂ€garna beror pĂ„ ett flertal aspekter, exempelvis hur mycket en skogsĂ€gare tillĂ„ts att avverka beror till stor del pĂ„ vilket referensscenario som vĂ€ljs i klimatnyttoanalysen. Ekonomisk pĂ„verkan kommer frĂ€mst att bero pĂ„ hur banker stĂ€ller sig till lĂ„n och rĂ€ntor till skogsĂ€gare som vĂ€ljer att följa Taxonomins krav eller inte. För att Taxonomin ska vara tydlig och lĂ€ttförstĂ„dd för skogsĂ€gare krĂ€vs ett förtydligande frĂ„n EU, frĂ€mst kring referensscenariot. Författaren har med denna rapport presenterat vad som krĂ€vs för att uppfylla de kriterier Taxonomin stĂ€ller samt presenterat ett förslag pĂ„ hur en klimatnyttoanalys kan redovisas med hjĂ€lp av beslutsstödsystemet Heureka PlanVis.Greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere has increased firmly since the 19th century thus the amount of carbon dioxide has increased the most. High emissions of greenhouse gasses truly have a negative impact on earth and on our climate. Rising average temperatures leads to devastating consequences on ecosystem, only stoppable by decreased emissions of greenhouse gasses. One of many different incentives and regulations from the politics limitation of climate change is the European parliament and the council’s regulation 2020/852, also known as the Taxonomy. In January 2020, part of the Taxonomy was established, aiming to stimulate and direct economic investments to sustainable activities. One line of industries that serves under the Taxonomy is the forest industry. In an annex to the Taxonomy there is technical screening criteria to be fulfilled if a forest estate larger than 13-hectare productive land is going to be ruled as sustainable. This study analyses technical screening criteria and interpretations of the Taxonomy annex, and at what stage the Taxonomy affect Swedish landowners if they want to fulfil all the criteria to be ruled as sustainable. At first, landowners need a forest management plan. Beyond all parts usually included in a forest management plan, several criteria must be fulfilled, for example a risk analyse is needed. Beyond the demands regarding the forest management plan a climate benefit analysis needs to be performed. If a landowner wants to be ruled as sustainable, the climate benefit analysis needs to show that total amount of carbon on the estate could not fall short of a reference scenario. How the Taxonomy will affect Swedish landowners depends on several aspects. One example is, how much a landowner is allowed to harvest depends on which reference scenario is chosen in the climate benefit analysis. Economic effects will mostly depend on how the banks decide to deal with loans and interests to landowners who chose to fulfil the demands of Taxonomy or not. If the Taxonomy is going to be clear and easily understood by landowners, a clarification is needed from EU, mostly regarding reference scenario. The author of this report presents what is needed to fulfil the criteria in the Taxonomy, presenting suggestions on how a climate benefit analysis can be presented with help from the program Heureka PlanVis

    The effect of pre-clearing on the economical, ecological and social values of the forest

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    I dagens skogsbruk gallras ungefĂ€r dubbelt sĂ„ stor areal Ă„rligen jĂ€mfört med arealen slutavverkning. Innan en gallring kan en förröjning utföras för att höja bestĂ„ndets medelstamsvolym och förbĂ€ttra sikten för skördarföraren. Tidigare studier visar pĂ„ att Ă€ven om produktiviteten förbĂ€ttras med en utförd förröjning Ă€r det inte ekonomiskt försvarbart att utföra en förröjning om ekonomin analyseras vid gallringstillfĂ€llet. Rapportens syfte Ă€r dĂ€rför att undersöka hur ett bestĂ„nds nuvĂ€rde pĂ„verkas över en hel omloppstid dĂ€r med och utan en utförd förröjning tas i beaktning. Även hur de sociala och ekologiska aspekterna pĂ„verkas av en förröjning undersöks i rapporten. Studien gjordes i programvaran Heureka Planvis med indata frĂ„n Riksskogstaxeringens ytor frĂ„n hela Sverige. Underlaget delades upp efter trĂ€dslag, stĂ„ndortsindex och landsĂ€nda (södra eller norra Sverige) dĂ€r sedan simuleringar utfördes med och utan förröjning. Utöver detta gjordes litteraturstudier med avseende pĂ„ sociala och ekologiska aspekter. Resultatet visade att brytpunkten för nĂ€r det Ă€r lönsamt att utföra en förröjning varierade mellan södra och norra Sverige för tall och att den kommer tidigare för gran Ă€n för tall. För gran Ă€r brytpunkten mellan G22 och G26 för bĂ„de södra och norra Sverige. För tall Ă€r brytpunkten mellan T22 och T26 för södra Sverige och i norra Sverige visade resultaten att det aldrig var lönsamt att utföra en förröjning. De ekonomiska resultaten kan ifrĂ„gasĂ€ttas pĂ„ grund av Heureka Planvis hantering av förröjning. För de ekologiska aspekterna visade sig förröjning vara enbart negativt oberoende av vad kĂ€llorna behandlade för omrĂ„de. Sett ur social synvinkel fanns en större varians i hur förröjning kunde pĂ„verka vĂ€rdet.In Swedish forestry, thinning is a common practice. Before thinning, pre-clearing is sometimes performed to generate higher piece sizes and to increase sightlines for the harvester operator. Earlier studies have shown that although harvester productivity increases with pre-clearing, it’s not financially justifiable to pre-clear if the economics are analyzed at the time of thinning. The purpose of this study is to examine how pre-clearing affects a stand’s net present value over a rotation period. The study also examines how the forest’s social and ecological values are affected by pre-clearing. The study was made using the stand growth simulator Heureka Planvis with data from the Swedish National Forest Inventory. The data was sorted by species, site index and geography (north or south of Sweden) and simulations were made with and without pre-cleaning. Beyond this modelling, literature studies were made regarding how pre-clearing affects social and ecological values. The study showed that the breakeven point for pre-clearing’s profitability varied between northern and southern Sweden for pine. For spruce, the breaking point was between site index G22 and G26 in both southern and northern Sweden. For pine, the breaking point was between site index T22 and T26 for southern Sweden; meanwhile, in northern Sweden, it was never profitable to pre-clear. However, because of Heureka’s modelling limitations, the results probably overestimate pre-clearing’s profitability. Every source we looked at showed that pre-clearing has a negative effect on the ecological values. From a social point of view, there is a bigger difference in how pre-clearing affects the forest’s social values

    The Strategic Environmental Archaeology Database : a resource for international, multiproxy and transdisciplinary studies of environmental and climatic change

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    Climate and environmental change are global challenges which require global data and infrastructure to investigate. These challenges also require a multi-proxy approach, integrating evidence from Quaternary science and archaeology with information from studies on modern ecology and physical processes among other disciplines. The Strategic Environmental Archaeology Database (SEAD http://www.sead.se) is a Swedish based international research e-infrastructure for storing, managing, analysing and disseminating palaeoenvironmental data from an almost unlimited number of analysis methods. The system currently makes available raw data from over 1500 sites (&gt;5300 datasets) and the analysis of Quaternary fossil insects, plant macrofossils, pollen, geochemistry and sediment physical properties, dendrochronology and wood anatomy, ceramic geochemistry and bones, along with numerous dating methods. This capacity will be expanded in the near future to include isotopes, multi-spectral and archaeo-metalurgical data. SEAD also includes expandable climate and environment calibration datasets, a complete bibliography and extensive metadata and services for linking these data to other resources. All data is available as Open Access through http://qsead.sead.se and downloadable software.   SEAD is maintained and managed at the Environmental Archaeology Lab and HUMlab at Umea University, Sweden. Development and data ingestion is progressing in cooperation with The Laboratory for Ceramic Research and the National Laboratory for Wood Anatomy and Dendrochronology at Lund University, Sweden, the Archaeological Research Laboratory, Stockholm University, the Geoarchaeological Laboratory, Swedish National Historical Museums Agency and several international partners and research projects. Current plans include expanding its capacity to serve as a data source for any system and integration with the Swedish National Heritage Board's information systems.   SEAD is partnered with the Neotoma palaeoecology database (http://www.neotomadb.org) and a new initiative for building cyberinfrastructure for transdisciplinary research and visualization of the long-term human ecodynamics of the North Atlantic funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF).Abstract will be published in conference abstracts volume.</p

    Reducing Climate Impact from Fisheries : A Study of Fisheries Management and Fuel Tax Concessions in the Nordic Countries

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    Few doubt the impact from human activities on global warming and the negative consequences of rising temperatures for both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Efficient policy instruments are needed to change the development. This report uses empirical models to analyse how CO2 emissions, fleet structure, economic performance, and employment opportunities are affected by imposing management instruments to reduce climate impacts. These instruments include both fisheries management such as larger stock levels and more efficient fleets, and energy policy such as fuel taxes or CO2 trading schemes. To get a representative view of the Nordic fisheries, the analysis contains case studies from all the Nordic countries: Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Finland. The fleet segments analysed range from coastal small-scale trap nets to large off-shore trawlers

    Ekologisk kompensation : Upptag och integrering bland svenska aktörer och kvantifiering av de samhÀllsekonomiska effekterna

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    Under de senaste decennierna har flera internationella rapporter visat pĂ„ en vĂ€rldsomfattande förlust av biologisk mĂ„ngfald och funktionella ekosystem. Ett av de största hoten Ă€r förĂ€ndrad markanvĂ€ndning. Ett sĂ€tt att förebygga och lindra skada Ă€r att arbeta med skadelindringshierarkin och ekologisk kompensation. Enligt skadelindringshierarki skall exploatören strĂ€va efter att (1) undvika, (2) minimera och (3) Ă„terstĂ€lla den biologiska mĂ„ngfalden eller avhjĂ€lpa negativ miljöpĂ„verkan pĂ„ plats. DĂ€refter kan de eventuellt kvarvarande negativa konsekvenserna (4) kompenseras. Detta sista steg gĂ„r i Sverige under namnet ekologisk kompensation. Ekologisk kompensation som idĂ© utvecklades pĂ„ 1970-talet och har sedan dess anvĂ€nts och utvecklats av offentliga organisationer och företag runt om i vĂ€rlden. I Sverige genomförs kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder antingen med utgĂ„ngspunkt i miljöbalken eller genom frivilliga Ă„taganden, oftast i relation till fysisk planering (sĂ„ kallad frivillig ekologisk kompensation). Vid den lagstyrda kompensationen stĂ„r biologisk mĂ„ngfald i fokus, medan den frivilliga ekologiska kompensationen ocksĂ„ fokuserar pĂ„ bevarandet av ekosystemtjĂ€nster. Genom planmonopolet, ansvaret för allmĂ€nnyttan, samt i flera fall betydande markinnehav, har svenska kommuner en framtrĂ€dande roll i arbetet med bĂ„da typerna av ekologisk kompensation. Beroende pĂ„ hur landets kommuner vĂ€ljer att arbeta med ekologisk kompensation i samband fysisk planering kommer utfallet för skydd av biologisk mĂ„ngfald och ekosystemtjĂ€nster att variera. Denna rapport fokuserar pĂ„ kommuners arbete med ekologisk kompensation frĂ„n tvĂ„ olika vinklar: anvĂ€ndning av ekologisk kompensation i kommunal fysisk planering (del 1) och hur modeller kan ge stöd för beslut av kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder (del 2). Vi studerar Del 1 bestĂ„r av en teoretisk bakgrund, en översiktlig aktörsanalys, tvĂ„ empiriska kapitel. Den teoretiska bakgrunden ger en övergripande beskrivning av konceptets grundlĂ€ggande idĂ©er och etiska, sociala, tekniska och styrningsrelaterade utmaningar som identifierats i den vetenskapliga litteraturen. Denna bakgrund anvĂ€nds som en analytisk utgĂ„ngspunkt för de empiriska kapitlen. I den översiktliga analysen av praktiken beskrivs svenska aktörers (myndigheter, företag och kommuner) arbete med ekologisk kompensation. I det första empiriska kapitlet kartlĂ€ggs upptaget och anvĂ€ndningen av konceptet ekologisk kompensation i översiktliga planeringsdokument (översiktsplaner, fördjupade översiktsplaner, grönplaner och naturvĂ„rdsplaner). I det andra empiriska kapitlet redovisas en intervjustudie genomförd med kommunala tjĂ€nstepersoner kring drivkrafter och barriĂ€rer i relation till kommunens arbete med ekologisk kompensation. I den andra delen av projektet beskrivs och demonstreras hur modellering kan anvĂ€ndas för att kvantifiera förluster av ekosystemtjĂ€nster vid en exploatering, nĂ„got som kan anvĂ€ndas för att ta fram lĂ€mpliga kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder. Som fallstudier studeras exploatering av tvĂ„ olika typer av markanvĂ€ndning: bostadsnĂ€ra natur (grönomrĂ„den) som anvĂ€nds för rekreation samt jordbruksmark. De ekosystemtjĂ€nster som studeras vid exploatering av jordbruksmark Ă€r Sveriges livsmedelsförsörjning och kolinlagring för att motverka klimatförĂ€ndring. Studien visar Ă€ven hur förluster av ekosystemtjĂ€nster kan översĂ€ttas till samhĂ€llsekonomiska monetĂ€ra vĂ€rden för att underlĂ€tta berĂ€kningar och finansiering av kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder. För den bostadsnĂ€ra naturen utvecklas en enkel modell som synliggör rekreationsvĂ€rden samt belyser fördelningseffekter vid ekologisk kompensation. Vi finner Del 1 KartlĂ€ggningen av de översiktliga planeringsdokumenten pekar pĂ„ ett betydande upptag av konceptet i kommunerna. Skillnaden i hur lĂ„ngt kommunerna har kommit i anvĂ€ndandet av konceptet varierar dock. Bland de 164 kommunerna som nĂ€mner ekologisk kompensation har tre av tio kommuner utvecklat planeringsverktyg i form av processverktyg, planeringsunderlag och berĂ€kningsmodeller. Resterande kommuner har en varierande grad av integrering av konceptet i planerna; frĂ„n hĂ€nvisningar till gĂ€llande lagstiftning, till skrivningar om att de ska ta fram planeringsverktyg. Det finns Ă€ven en stor variation i hur kommunerna relaterar till konceptets grundlĂ€ggande idĂ©er och utmaningar. Intervjustudien visar att det finns flera sĂ€tt att se pĂ„ kompensation ur ett kommunalt perspektiv, dĂ€r vissa ser kompensation som nĂ„got positivt och som en möjlighet att skapa en dialog med exploatörer, medan andra ser anvĂ€ndningen som mer problematiskt. Vissa utmaningar framtrĂ€der dock gemensamt i de studerade kommunerna; flera kommuner lyfter problemet kring bristande uppföljning av genomförda kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder vilket skapar en osĂ€kerhet kring lĂ„ngsiktigt sĂ€kerstĂ€llande av naturvĂ€rden och ekosystemtjĂ€nster. Det Ă€r en mĂ„ngfacetterad problembild som handlar sĂ„vĂ€l om osĂ€kerheter kring om frivilliga Ă„tgĂ€rder ens blir implementerade, om de fĂ„r adekvat skötsel. I relation till detta nĂ€mner ocksĂ„ tjĂ€nstepersoner i mindre kommuner att lokala politiker inte vill stĂ€lla för höga krav p.g.a. risken att avskrĂ€cka exploatören. MĂ„nga tjĂ€nstepersoner nĂ€mner ocksĂ„ att de skulle önska tydligare mandat bĂ„de frĂ„n den kommunala politiken och frĂ„n nationell lagstiftning men ocksĂ„ mer konkreta rĂ„d (underlagsmaterial och rĂ„dgivning) för hur de kan anvĂ€nda kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder som ett verktyg inom ramarna för existerande lagstiftning. Del 2 Vid exploatering av exempelvis jordbruksmark Ă€r det otydligt hur effekterna bör analyseras och eventuellt kompenseras. Studien visar att exploatering av jordbruksmark försĂ€mrar Sveriges potential till livsmedelsförsörjning i framtiden och ökar landets utslĂ€pp av vĂ€xthusgaser. Vi beskriver hur den negativa pĂ„verkan pĂ„ livsmedelsförsörjningen kan berĂ€knas och hur den kan kompenseras genom ekologisk intensifiering av kvarvarande jordbruksmark. Ökade utslĂ€pp av vĂ€xthusgaser behöver emellertid kompenseras med lĂ€mpliga kolfĂ„ngstĂ„tgĂ€rder i nĂ€rtid. Resultaten frĂ„n vĂ„r fallstudie visar att exploatering av ett hektar jordbruksmark i Götalands södra slĂ€ttbygder innebĂ€r ett nettokrav pĂ„ exploatören pĂ„ ca 2 miljoner kr för att finansiera kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder. I fallstudien har vi bara undersökt tvĂ„ effekter av exploatering av jordbruksmark för att undersöka potentialen i modelleringsmetoden. Men andra ekosystemtjĂ€nster och biologisk mĂ„ngfald i allmĂ€nhet kommer sannolikt att pĂ„verkas negativt vid en exploatering. Det berĂ€knade nettokravet kan dĂ€rför tolkas som ett minimumvĂ€rde. Vid kompensation av bostadsnĂ€ra grönomrĂ„den visar resultaten att tillgĂ€nglighet Ă€r den viktigaste faktorn vid berĂ€kningar av rekreationsvĂ€rden, eller mer specifikt hur mĂ„nga som bor i nĂ€rheten av eller passerar förbi grönomrĂ„det pĂ„ vĂ€g till skola, arbete etc. Även om det finns skillnader mellan olika grupper i samhĂ€llet betrĂ€ffande hur ofta de besöker ett tĂ€tortsnĂ€ra grönomrĂ„de Ă€r dessa skillnader smĂ„ i förhĂ„llande till tillgĂ€nglighetens (avstĂ„ndets) betydelse för rekreationsvĂ€rdet. Det Ă€r dock viktigt att framhĂ„lla att det kommer att finnas vinnare och förlorare vid en rumslig flyttning av kompensationsĂ„tgĂ€rder. De berĂ€kningsmodeller som vi presenterar i denna rapport skulle kunna ge ett ökat stöd och beslutsunderlag vid ekologisk kompensation. För att göra de mer komplexa modellerna tillgĂ€ngliga för anvĂ€ndare skulle modellerna kunna tillhandahĂ„llas pĂ„ nationell nivĂ„. Även om bra modeller kan bidra till ett förbĂ€ttrat beslutsunderlag Ă€r det av yttersta vikt att det finns bra stöd, vĂ€gledning, kvalitetskriterier samt goda uppföljningsmekanismer för ekologisk kompensation. I annat fall förlorar modellerna ocksĂ„ sitt vĂ€rde. De aspekter som Ă€r allra svĂ„rast att modellera Ă€r av intrikat ekologisk eller lokal art och stĂ€ller dĂ€rför krav pĂ„ kompetens och lokalkĂ€nnedom hos den som anvĂ€nder modellerna.In recent decades, several international reports have shown a worldwide loss of biodiversity and functional ecosystems. One of the biggest threats is land-use changes. One way to prevent and alleviate injury is to work with the mitigation hierarchy and biodiversity offsetting. According to this hierarchy, the developer should strive to (1) avoid, (2) minimize and (3) restore biodiversity or remedy negative environmental impacts on site. Thereafter, any possible remaining negative consequences can be compensated outside the development site (4). In Sweden, this last step is called ecological compensation.  Ecological compensation as an idea was developed in the 1970s and has since then been used and developed by authorities, companies, and municipal organizations around the world. In Sweden, compensatory measures are implemented either based on the Environmental Code or through voluntary commitments, often in relation to spatial planning (so called voluntary compensation). In statutory compensation, biological diversity is generally in focus, while voluntary ecological compensation also focus on the conservation of ecosystem services.  Swedish municipalities have a prominent role in the work with all types of ecological compensation through their: planning monopoly, responsibility for the public good, and often significant land holdings. Depending on how the Swedish municipalities choose to work with ecological compensation in connection with spatial planning, the outcome for the protection of biological diversity and ecosystem services will vary. In this report, we focus on municipalities’ work with ecological compensation from two different angles: the use of ecological compensation in municipal spatial planning (part 1) and how models can provide support for decisions on compensatory measures (part 2). We study Part 1 consists of a theoretical background, an overview of the practice of ecological compensation, two empirical chapters and a chapter that evaluate two examples when ecological have been used. The theoretical background provides an overall description of the concept’s basic ideas and the ethical, social, technical and governance challenges identified in the scientific literature. This background is used as an analytical starting point for the empirical chapters. The actor analysis describes what Swedish actors’ (authorities, companies, and municipalities) work with ecological compensation looks like. In the first empirical chapter, the uptake and use of the concept of ecological compensation in general planning documents (comprehensive plans, intensive comprehensive plans, green plans, and nature conservation plans) is mapped out. In the second empirical chapter, an interview study is conducted with municipal officials on driving forces and barriers in relation to the municipality’s work with ecological compensation. In the second part of the project, we describe and demonstrate how modeling can be used to quantify the loss of ecosystem services from an exploitation, as well as identify and evaluate appropriate compensatory measures. Using case studies, we evaluated the exploitation of two different types of existing land uses: nature close to urban areas (i.e. green space used for recreation) and agricultural land. The ecosystem services we studied in relation to the exploitation of agricultural land are Sweden’s food security and carbon storage to counteract climate change. We also show how losses of ecosystem services can be translated into monetary values to facilitate the calculation and financing of compensatory measures. For green space in urban areas, we developed a model that makes recreational values visible and shows the distributional effects of ecological compensation among the population. We find Part 1 The mapping of the comprehensive planning documents points to a significant uptake of the concept in the municipalities. However, the difference in how far the municipalities have come in the use of the concept varies. Among the 164 municipalities that mention ecological compensation, three out of ten have developed planning tools in the form of process tools, strategic plans, and assessment tools. The remaining municipalities have a varying degree of integration of the concept into the plans; from references to current legislation, to writings that they will develop planning tools. There is also a great deal of variation in how the municipalities relate to the concept’s basic ideas and challenges. The interview study shows that there are several ways of looking at compensation from a municipal perspective, where some see compensation as something positive and as an opportunity to create a dialogue with developers, while others see the usage as more problematic. However, some challenges appear common in the municipalities studied; several municipalities raise the issue of inadequate follow-up of implemented compensation measures, which creates uncertainty regarding long-term assurance of natural values and ecosystem services. It is a multifaceted problem that concerns uncertainties about whether voluntary measures will even be implemented, whether they will be adequately managed. In relation to this, officials in several smaller municipalities also mention that local politicians do not want to set too high demands due to the risk of discouraging the developer. Many officials also mention in that they would like clearer mandates both from municipal policy and from national legislation but also more concrete advice (background material and advice) on how to use compensatory measures as a tool in spatial planning within the frame of existing legislation. Part II With regard to the more-or-less voluntary compensation, it is unclear how the effects of exploiting agricultural land should be analyzed and compensated. We show that the exploitation of agricultural land, damages Sweden’s food security in the future and increases Sweden’s greenhouse gas emissions. We show how the negative impact on food security can be calculated and how it could be compensated through ecological intensification of the remaining area of agricultural land. However, increased greenhouse gas emissions need to be compensated with appropriate carbon mitigation measures in the near future. Based on our case study in Scania, we show that the exploitation of one hectare of agricultural land entails a net claim on the developer of approximately SEK 2 million to finance compensatory measures. Here we have only investigated two impacts of exploiting agricultural land to explore the potential of the modelling approach, but other ecosystem services and biodiversity in general are also likely to be negatively affected by exploitation. Hence the calculated claim should be interpreted as a minimum damage cost based on the cost of compensation measures for food security and greenhouse gas emissions. When compensating for exploited green space in urban areas, the results show that accessibility is the most important factor in the determination of the recreational value, or more specifically, how many people that live near or pass by the green space on the way to school, work, etc. Although there are differences among different groups in society, regarding how often they visit a green space, these differences are small in relation to the importance of accessibility (distance) in the calculation of recreational values. We show that there will be winners and losers in the case of a spatial relocation of compensatory measures. The quantitative models that we present in this report could provide additional decision support for ecological compensation, particularly for systematizing the evaluation of compensation needs throughout the country. To make the models available to users, they should therefore be provided at the national level. Although good models can contribute to improved decision support, it is of the utmost importance that there is sufficient support, guidance, quality criteria and follow-up mechanisms for ecological compensation. Otherwise, the models will also lose their value as a planning tool
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