Reproduction and behaviour of the lesser mouse lemur (microcebus murinus, Miller 1777) in captivity.

A detailed knowledge of the behaviour and reproduction of any exotic species of mammal plays an important role in the successful maintenance and breeding of that species in captivity. Data from the field are particularly important in evaluating results in captivity. Where complete field data are not available, problems arising in captivity can only be assessed by taking successfully breeding individuals as the norm and using them as a guideline when studying reproductive problems. This study has been designed to establish the reproductive parameters of the lesser mouse lemur, Microcebus murinus, using data from the field and successfully breeding individuals to this end. Aberrations arising in captivity were examined and an attempt was made to identify their causes. During the course of this study data have been collected on the annual variations of behavioural and physiological parameters. Information on male and female reproductive physiology has been collected and hormone assays have been conducted on urine samples from oestrous, pregnant and non-pregnant females. Data on infant\ud birth-weight and development have also been recorded. Special attention has been paid to reproductive behaviour, particularly birth and maternal care. In addition, a study has been made of social behaviour and communication. The relationship between social behaviour, status and reproductive success has been examined. Having established the "normal" condition it was possible to examine deviations from this norm. Under certain circumstances environmental stimulation was observed to either stimulate or suppress reproduction. Suppression of reproduction is discussed in the light of physical and social environmental influences. Data on pathology have also been collected and adrenal weight and histology recorded. An attempt has been made to integrate post-mortem findings with observations on reproduction and behaviour. The normative data collected in this study are discussed in terms of their adaptive significance and the deviations from the normal condition are viewed in terms of stress. An attempt is then made to indicate the positive influence which this and similar studies could have on captive animal management

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Markers in Conservation Biology

Human impacts through habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species and climate change are increasing the number of species threatened with extinction. Decreases in population size simultaneously lead to reductions in genetic diversity, ultimately reducing the ability of populations to adapt to a changing environment. In this way, loss of genetic polymorphism is linked with extinction risk. Recent advances in sequencing technologies mean that obtaining measures of genetic diversity at functionally important genes is within reach for conservation programs. A key region of the genome that should be targeted for population genetic studies is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). MHC genes, found in all jawed vertebrates, are the most polymorphic genes in vertebrate genomes. They play key roles in immune function via immune-recognition and -surveillance and host-parasite interaction. Therefore, measuring levels of polymorphism at these genes can provide indirect measures of the immunological fitness of populations. The MHC has also been linked with mate-choice and pregnancy outcomes and has application for improving mating success in captive breeding programs. The recent discovery that genetic diversity at MHC genes may protect against the spread of contagious cancers provides an added impetus for managing and protecting MHC diversity in wild populations. Here we review the field and focus on the successful applications of MHC-typing for conservation management. We emphasize the importance of using MHC markers when planning and executing wildlife rescue and conservation programs but stress that this should not be done to the detriment of genome-wide diversity

The visitor effect in petting zoo-housed animals: Aversive or enriching?

Two studies were carried out on the effect of visitors on mixed-breed goats, llama, and Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs housed in a petting zoo display within a safari park. In the first study we investigated the effect of the presence and density of visitors on the animals' behaviour and in the second, the effect of animal grooming by the visitors. We hypothesised that the animals' behaviour would be negatively affected by presence of visitors compared to periods of their absence, but this hypothesis was not fully supported by the data. Goat and llama behaviour was unaffected by the presence of the public, while the pigs showed decreased inactivity and social behaviour, both affiliative and aggressive, when visitors were present. All three study species exhibited increased levels of non-aggressive interaction with the public when visitor density was higher but the level of avoidance or aggression towards visitors was not dependent on density. The goats were less often in physical contact with other goats and less likely to be within proximity of a non-conspecific when visitor numbers were high, whereas the pigs showed decreased feeding, a behaviour that constituted a majority of their activity budget. Species differences were observed in the proportion of samples the study groups interacted in a non-aggressive manner with visitors, goats being most likely and llama the least likely to engage in this behaviour. In the second study visitors were provided with a grooming tool and asked to groom the animals, but no significant behavioural change was observed in either goats or pigs as a result. Visitors groomed goats, but not pigs, more than they interacted with them in non-grooming interactions, and goats, but not pigs, responded less to grooming as visitor density increased. Although significant behavioural changes in all three study species were associated with either visitor presence or density, the low levels of avoidance of visitors, visitor-directed aggression, or animal-directed aggression, suggest the welfare of the study animals was not profoundly impacted by visitor-related stimuli. Furthermore, there was no evidence that grooming by the public was enriching for the animals. The species differences reported here do suggest, however, that Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs and llama are more sensitive to visitor pressure than goats and particular attention to their welfare may be necessary when they are housed in petting zoo displays