Do financial incentives for delivering health promotion counselling work? Analysis of smoking cessation activities stimulated by the quality and outcomes framework

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>A substantial fraction of UK general practitioners' salaries is now intended to reflect the quality of care provided. This performance-related pay system has probably improved aspects of primary health care but, using the observational data available, disentangling the impacts of different types of targets set within this unique payment system is challenging.</p> <p>Discussion</p> <p>Financial incentives undoubtedly influence GPs' activities, however, those aimed at encouraging GPs' delivery of health promotion counselling may not always have the effects intended. There is strong, observational evidence that targets and incentives intended to increase smoking cessation counselling by GPs have merely increased their propensity to record this activity in patients' medical records. The limitations of using financial incentives to stimulate the delivery of counselling in primary care are discussed and a re-appraisal of their use within UK GPs' performance-related pay system is argued for.</p> <p>Summary</p> <p>The utility of targets employed by the system for UK General Practitioners' performance related pay may be inappropriate for encouraging the delivery of health promotion counselling interventions. An evaluation of these targets is essential before they are further developed or added to.</p

Does metformin reduce excess birthweight in offspring of obese pregnant women? A randomised controlled trial of efficacy, exploration of mechanisms and evaluation of other pregnancy complications

BackgroundMaternal obesity is associated with high birthweight, obesity and premature mortality in adult offspring, probably as a result of maternal hyperglycaemia and insulin resistance. We present the results of a trial designed to test the hypothesis that metformin will improve insulin sensitivity in obese pregnant women, thereby reducing the incidence of high-birthweight babies.ObjectiveTo determine the efficacy of metformin (up to 2500 mg daily) given to obese pregnant women in reducing the gestational age-, parity- and sex-adjusted birthweight centile of the baby.DesignDouble-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised controlled trial with embedded substudies.SettingFifteen NHS hospitals in the UK.ParticipantsPregnant women aged ≥ 16 years with a singleton fetus and a body mass index of ≥ 30 kg/m2.InterventionMetformin tablets (or placebo) administered between 12 and 16 weeks’ gestation until delivery of the baby.Main outcome measuresThe primary outcome measure was z-score corresponding to the gestational age-, parity- and sex-adjusted birthweight centile of live-born babies delivered at ≥ 24 weeks’ gestation. The main secondary outcome was maternal insulin resistance at 36 weeks’ gestation. Embedded substudies were included to assess the effect of metformin on insulin sensitivity using the hyperinsulinaemic–euglycaemic clamp; endothelial function; maternal and fetal fat distribution using magnetic resonance imaging; placental expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase types 1 and 2 and glucocorticoid receptor; and myometrial contractility and glycogen storage.ResultsWe randomised 449 women to either placebo (n = 223) or metformin (n = 226), of whom 434 were included in the final intention-to-treat analysis. Mean birthweight at delivery was 3463 g [standard deviation (SD) 660 g] in the placebo group and 3462 g (SD 548 g) in the metformin group. The estimated effect size of metformin on the primary outcome was non-significant [adjusted mean difference in z-score –0.029, 95% confidence interval (CI) –0.217 to 0.158; p = 0.7597]. There was no evidence of a reduction in the main secondary outcome of homeostatic model assessment – insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) at 36 weeks’ gestation (mean HOMA-IR 5.98 and 6.30 molar units in the placebo and metformin groups, respectively; adjusted mean ratio 0.974, 95% CI 0.865 to 1.097). Metformin had no effect on the combined adverse outcome of miscarriage, termination of pregnancy, stillbirth or neonatal death. Subjects taking metformin demonstrated increased insulin sensitivity [glucose disposal per unit plasma insulin difference between means during high-dose insulin 0.02 mg/kg, 95% CI 0.001 to 0.03 mg/kg (fat-free mass)/minute/µIU/l; p = 0.04] compared with those taking placebo and enhanced endogenous glucose production [difference between means 0.54 mg/kg, 95% CI 0.08 to 1.00 mg/kg (fat-free mass)/minute; p = 0.02]. There were no differences in endothelial function, maternal or fetal body fat distribution, placental expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase types 1 and 2 and glucocorticoid receptor, or myometrial contractility and glycogen storage.ConclusionsMetformin has no clinically significant effect on birthweight centile in obese pregnant women. Follow-up studies of the children born to participants in the trial are required to determine whether or not there are any longer-term benefits or harms of maternal metformin for offspring weight, fat mass or metabolism.Trial registrationCurrent Controlled Trials ISRCTN51279843.FundingThis project was funded by the Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation programme, a Medical Research Council and National Institute for Health Research partnership