Using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping to Collate Expert Knowledge: Diverse impacts of renewable energy on biodiversity and the UN Sustainable Development Goals

The European Union (EU) is committed to tackling the issue of climate change, which poses serious risks to the global environment and human well-being. Supporting renewable energy is a key policy direction for the EU to lower its contributions to climate change. However, renewable energy technologies have diverse effects on the environment and on society. These effects can be considered a complex system of interacting elements and are challenging to assess. Conceptual models are a way of synthesizing this information to obtain an overview of the system and essential insights. We present the results of an activity to assess the impacts of EU renewable energy policies on overseas biodiversity and the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This was carried out as part of the EKLIPSE (EKLIPSE (Establishing a European Knowledge and Learning Mechanism to Improve the Policy-Science-Society Interface on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) mechanism to synthesise environmental knowledge in response to specific requests by decision-makers at the European level. We carried out a participatory process to collate expert knowledge into a conceptual model using a Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping Approach (Özesmi and Özesmi 2004), with the Mental Modeler software for mapping (Gray et al. 2013). The participants were guided to connect significant EU policies associated with renewable energy, the technologies they support, and known impacts of these technologies on biodiversity and the SDGs, drawing on a preliminary review of the literature. The individual models obtained were integrated into a single model (see Suppl. material 1 for images). This was then subject to network analysis, which reveals the collective effects of different renewable energy technologies (RETs) on the wider socioecological system. Our findings highlight that RETs have complex and at times disparate effects on biodiversity and the SDGs, acting through a variety of mediating processes. They benefit the SDGs on balance, particularly climate-related SDGs. Mitigation of biodiversity impacts remains a concern, and processes such as habitat change were found to be influential here. Our results suggest that policymakers must focus on implementing appropriate environmental impact assessments, guided by these mediating processes. This would minimize any negative environmental impacts of RETs, while maximizing the benefits

Data transparency regarding the implementation of European ‘no net loss’ biodiversity policies

‘No net loss’ (NNL) conservation policies seek to address development impacts on biodiversity. There have been no peer-reviewed multinational assessments concerning the actual implementation of NNL policies to date. Such assessments would facilitate more informed debates on the validity of NNL for conservation, but assessing implementation requires data. Here, we explore data transparency concerning NNL implementation, with four European countries providing a case study. Biodiversity offsets (offsets) are the most tangible outcome of NNL policy. Using an expert network to locate all offset datasets available within the public domain, we collated information on offset projects implemented in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. Implementation data for offsets were found to be non-transparent, but the degree of transparency varies widely by country. We discuss barriers preventing data transparency — including a perceived lack of necessity, lack of common protocols for collecting data, and a lack of resources to do so. For the data we collected we find that most offsets in Europe: are not within protected areas; involve active restoration; and, compensate for infrastructure development. The area occupied by European offsets is at least of the order ~ 102 km2. Transparent national NNL databases are essential for meeting good practice NNL principles, but are not currently available in Europe. We discuss what such databases might require to support evaluation of NNL policy effectiveness by researchers, the conservation community and policymakers

EKLIPSE : engaging knowledge holders and networks for evidence-informed European policy on biodiversity and ecosystem services

The aim of EKLIPSE is to develop a mechanism to inform European-scale policy on biodiversity and related environmental challenges. This paper considers two fundamental aspects of the decision-support mechanism being developed by EKLIPSE: 1) the engagement of relevant actors from science, policy and society to jointly identify evidence for decision making; and 2) the networking of scientists and other holders of knowledge on biodiversity and other relevant evidence. The mechanism being developed has the potential not only to build communities of knowledge holders but to build informal networks among those with similar interests in evidence, be they those that seek to use evidence or those who are building evidence, or both. EKLIPSE has been successful in linking these people and in contributing to building informal networks of requesters of evidence, and experts of evidence and its synthesis. We have yet to see, however, significant engagement of formal networks of knowledge holders. Future success, however, relies on the continued involvement with and engagement of networks, a high degree of transparency within the processes and a high flexibility of structures to adapt to different requirements that arise with the broad range of requests to and activities of EKLIPSE

Biodiversity post-2020: Closing the gap between global targets and national-level implementation

National and local governments need to step up efforts to effectively implement the post-2020 global biodiversity framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity to halt and reverse worsening biodiversity trends. Drawing on recent advances in interdisciplinary biodiversity science, we propose a framework for improved implementation by national and subnational governments. First, the identification of actions and the promotion of ownership across stakeholders need to recognize the multiple values of biodiversity and account for remote responsibility. Second, cross-sectorial implementation and mainstreaming should adopt scalable and multifunctional ecosystem restoration approaches and target positive futures for nature and people. Third, assessment of progress and adaptive management can be informed by novel biodiversity monitoring and modeling approaches handling the multidimensionality of biodiversity change

Voluntary vs. compliance regimes for the implementation of biodiversity offsets

The discussion about voluntary vs. mandatory offsets has risen to particular attention with the planned No Net Loss initiative of the EU and the envisaged introduction of a mandatory compensation scheme at EU level. However, biodiversity offsets are far more complex than this distinction of two types of biodiversity offsets implies. Consequently, the aim of this study was to develop a refined typology with regard to the voluntariness of biodiversity offsets. To this end, four consecutive steps have been applied: 1. Deduction of an impressionistic classification of types, 2. Derivation (and reduction) of relevant attributes/criteria for voluntariness from the theory, 3. Substruction of the underlying attribute space and combinations of attributes and 4. Transformation (rectification) of the impressionistic types and analysis of meaningful correlations. As a result, a typology with seven types has been built: 1. Regulatory offsets: required by law and enforced 2. Conditional offsets: required by financial institutions (e.g. International Finance Corporation) 3. Enabled offsets: fostered by governments and NGOs through pilot schemes, guidance etc. 4. Sectoral offsets: take part in a voluntary self-commitment of a sector (e.g. mining) 5. Corporate offsets: resulting from a voluntary self-commitment of a corporation 6. Local offsets: single offsets, that are most likely developed at local level in a consensual process 7. Altruistic offsets: truly voluntary offsets that are driven by the altruistic motivation to make a positive impact The state of the scientific knowledge and the practical evidence explored throughout this study encourage the analysis (and use of) of the various forms of voluntary biodiversity offsets, in particular with regard to the evaluation of their outcome in terms of effectiveness and efficiency. This can help to contribute to an informed debate about biodiversity offsets and how they can be delivered in practice.peerReviewe

La compensation mutualisée en Allemagne : quelles implications écologiques et territoriales ?

La compensation mutualisée en Allemagne (Ökokonto) s’est développée dès les années 1990. Dans la perspective d’une mise en regard des systèmes de compensation mutualisée français et allemand, les auteures de l'article proposent une analyse « Atouts, Faiblesses, Opportunités et Menaces » pour souligner les caractéristiques de la compensation par Ökokonto. Les principales implications écologiques, territoriales mais aussi organisationnelles sont mises en avant pour ensuite en tirer de premiers enseignements vis-à-vis de la pratique française de la compensation mutualisée

The Netherlands

The mitigation hierarchy has been part of Dutch spatial planning and environmental laws since 1961 in regard to forests, with extensions to other nature conservation acts since the 1990s. Over the years these laws have changed, along with their interpretation and application. Consequently, the roles and responsibilities of the central and regional governments have also shifted, with responsibilities regarding the enforcement of the mitigation hierarchy being transferred from the national government to the twelve provinces. Since 2017, three nature conservation laws have been merged into a single Nature Conservation Act, with the aim of clarifying and simplifying regulations. In the years to come, the new Nature Conservation Act will be incorporated into an overarching Environment and Planning Act, together with dozens of other pieces of legislation related to spatial planning and the environment. In summary, while Dutch law takes account of no net loss and offset mechanisms, the plurality of designations and regulations applying to sites has proven confusing to both practitioners and regulators. This chapter outlines the main policy mechanisms related to the mitigation hierarchy in the Netherlands, the application thereof, as well as successes and failures as outlined in recent studies. Our particular focus is on biodiversity offsets, which have received much attention in recent years. We discuss the scale of application, the transparency and availability of documentation regarding offset projects, along with the various offsetting mechanisms currently in place (restoration offsets, in-lieu fees). We also briefly touch upon recent developments regarding a habitat banking system and generic metrics to measure no net loss

Für eine zukunftsfähige Naturschutz­verwaltung im 21. Jahrhundert: Teil 2: Lösungsansätze – ein Aufruf zu einem notwendigen Reformprozess

Aus der literatur- und erfahrungsbasierten Analyse der Naturschutzverwaltung in den Bundesländern in Teil 1 des Beitrags werden 20 Thesen abgeleitet. Mit diesen Anregungen soll ein grundlegender Reformprozess eingeleitet werden, um die Naturschutzverwaltung für das 21. Jahrhundert zukunftsfähig zu gestalten. Diese betreffen (1) organisationale Strukturen, um effektiver und effizienter sowie weniger hierarchisch arbeiten zu können; (2) personelle Verbesserungen, um die Arbeitszufriedenheit zu fördern und Zukunftskompetenzen zu ermöglichen; (3) rechtliche, planerische und finanzielle Neuerungen, um die Wirksamkeit der Verwaltungsarbeit zu erhöhen; (4) Ausbildung, Fort- und Weiterbildung, um dem Fachkräftemangel zu begegnen und eine berufsbegleitende Qualifizierungsoffensive zu realisieren. Die Herausforderungen sollten parallel in allen Bundesländern systematisch angegangen und die Arbeitsprozesse zugleich bundesweit koordiniert werden. Der Beitrag ist als konstruktive Anregung gedacht, gewohnte Bahnen ebenso zu verlassen wie gefühlte und reale Zwänge zu überwinden. // Twenty theses were derived from literature- and experience-based analysis of nature conservation administration in the federal states in Part 1 of this article. These suggestions are intended to initiate a fundamental reform process in order to make nature conservation administration fit for the future in the 21st century. These concern: (1) organizational structures in order to be able to work more effectively and efficiently, as well as less hierarchically; (2) personnel improvements in order to promote job satisfaction and enable future skills; (3) legal, planning, and financial innovations in order to increase the effectiveness of administrative work; and (4) training, further and advanced qualification in order to counter the shortage of skilled professionals and to implement an ongoing qualification offensive. The challenges should be systematically tackled simultaneously in all federal states with the work processes coordinated nationwide at the same time. This article is intended as a constructive suggestion to leave conventional pathways and overcome perceived and real constraints