Addressing Criticisms of Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas

Designated large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs, 100,000 or more square kilometers) constitute over two-thirds of the approximately 6.6% of the ocean and approximately 14.5% of the exclusive economic zones within marine protected areas. Although LSMPAs have received support among scientists and conservation bodies for wilderness protection, regional ecological connectivity, and improving resilience to climate change, there are also concerns. We identified 10 common criticisms of LSMPAs along three themes: (1) placement, governance, and management; (2) political expediency; and (3) social–ecological value and cost. Through critical evaluation of scientific evidence, we discuss the value, achievements, challenges, and potential of LSMPAs in these arenas. We conclude that although some criticisms are valid and need addressing, none pertain exclusively to LSMPAs, and many involve challenges ubiquitous in management. We argue that LSMPAs are an important component of a diversified management portfolio that tempers potential losses, hedges against uncertainty, and enhances the probability of achieving sustainably managed oceans

South Africa

South Africa has the second longest coastline on the African continent and spans two oceans. The confluence of the Benguela and Agulhas Currents off South Africa results in their dynamics being complex and often unpredictable, although it is these dynamic ocean systems that contribute to the high biodiversity and productivity of the South African coastal and marine ecosystems. There are 136 different habitat types ranging from subtropical coral reefs and mangroves on the north-east coast to temperate kelp forests and seamounts on the south and western coast. These habitats are under pressure from climate change as well as direct human impacts. Climate change is expected to influence the dynamic nature of the ocean systems through alterations of the currents, sea-level rise and increased water temperatures, ocean acidification, and storm events. Human activities such as fishing, overexploitation of marine resources, and coastal development have placed great pressures on marine and coastal habitats, biodiversity, and resources. Future threats include increased offshore mining activities in habitats that are not well studied or protected. Marine protection and management is achieved through the overarching National Environmental Management and Integrated Coastal Management Acts, which make provision for setting up marine protected areas (MPAs) and protection of individual species. Operation Phakisa is an exciting new initiative that has the potential to address the human resources capacity shortages, research requirements, and governance issues identified in this chapte