Economic and Environmental Consequences of the ECJ Genome Editing Judgment in Agriculture

Genome-edited crops are on the verge of being placed on the market and their agricultural and food products will thus be internationally traded soon. National regulations, however, diverge regarding the classification of genome-edited crops. Major countries such as the US and Brazil do not specifically regulate genome-edited crops, while in the European Union, they fall under GMO legislation, according to the European Court of Justice (ECJ). As it is in some cases impossible to analytically distinguish between products from genome-edited plants and those from non-genome-edited plants, EU importers may fear the risk of violating EU legislation. They may choose not to import any agricultural and food products based on crops for which genome-edited varieties are available. Therefore, crop products of which the EU is currently a net importer would become more expensive in the EU, and production would intensify. Furthermore, an intense substitution of products covered and not covered by genome editing would occur in consumption, production, and trade. We analyzed the effects of such a cease of EU imports for cereals and soy in the EU agricultural sector with the comparative static agricultural sector equilibrium model CAPRI. Our results indicate dramatic effects on agricultural and food prices as well as on farm income. The intensification of EU agriculture may result in negative net environmental effects in the EU as well as in an increase in global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This suggests that trade effects should be considered when developing domestic regulation for genome-edited crops.Peer Reviewe

The Role of Coordination and Cooperation in Early Adoption of GM Crops : The Case of Bt Maize in Brandenburg, Germany

Since 2006, several varieties of transgenic Bt maize have been approved for commercial cultivation in Germany. The German regulatory framework for growing these crops comprises moderate ex-ante regulations as well as strict ex-post liability rules to protect conventional and organic farming from possible economic damages caused by transgenic plants and to ensure coexistence. These regulations, however, impose additional costs on those farmers who intend to plant Bt maize. This article addresses the question of how Bt maize-growing farmers perceive the additional costs of regulation and whether coordination or cooperation takes place in order to diminish these costs. In 2006, the authors carried out a case study in the Oderbruch region (Brandenburg, Germany) comprised of eight Bt maize farms and six adjacent non-Bt maize farms. The case study revealed that the costs arising from ex-ante regulations and ex-post liability were only of minor importance to the Bt maize-growing farmers. The predominantly large farms chose intra-farm coordination to manage the construction of buffer zones within their own fields and to avoid the planting of Bt maize close to their neighbors. Inter-farm coordination or cooperation with adjacent farmers was not regarded as necessary to achieve coexistence.Includes bibliographical reference

Kooperative und hierarchische Erscheinungsformen des institutionellen Wandels

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht kooperative und hierarchische Erscheinungsformen des institutionellen Wandels am Beispiel des Anbaus von gentechnisch verändertem Bt-Mais MON810 in Deutschland. In den Jahren 2005 bis 2008 war der kommerzielle Anbau dieser Pflanze in Deutschland möglich, und überwiegend Landwirte in den ostdeutschen Bundesländern machten von dieser Möglichkeit der Bekämpfung des Maisschädlings Ostrinia nubilalis Hübn. (Maiszünsler) Gebrauch. Unter Zuhilfenahme des Analyserahmens „Institutionen der Nachhaltigkeit“ werden in vier empirischen Kapiteln die Aspekte 1) Risikowahrnehmung und institutionelle Präferenz, 2) Möglichkeiten der Bereitstellung des Gutes „Gentechnikfreie Atmosphäre, 3) regionale Faktoren für Adaptionsunterschiede und 4) Adaption von Bt-Mais als Verhandlungsspiel zwischen Akteuren des ländlichen Raums beleuchtet. Hierbei wird deutlich, dass eine verstärkte Risikowahrnehmung beim Anbau von Bt-Mais MON810 eine Präferenz für eine Verschärfung des gegenwärtigen gesetzlichen Rahmens zum Umgang mit gentechnisch veränderten Pflanzen bedingt. Ebenso bevorzugen Akteure mit einer entsprechenden Risikowahrnehmung eine hierarchische Steuerung zur Sicherstellung der Gentechnikfreiheit, beispielsweise in Form von staatlich ausgewiesenen Gentechnikfreien Regionen oder Anbauverboten. Bei der Adaption von Bt-Mais kommt der Maisfläche je Betrieb eine große Bedeutung zu. Durch den rechtlichen Rahmen in Deutschland, die jeweilige Agrarstruktur und das soziale Umfeld wird der Anbau von Bt-Mais erschwert. Die unterschiedlichen Akteure wenden daher Maßnahmen an, um ihre eigene Verhandlungsposition zu verbessern oder die des Mitspielers zu verschlechtern. Hierzu zählen beispielsweise die Reduktion von Mindestabständen durch nachbarschaftliche Absprachen oder auch die Ausübung von öffentlichem Druck auf Bt-Mais anbauende Landwirte sowie Feldzerstörungen.This work aims at analysing co-operative and hierarchical forms of institutional change in the case of Bt-maize cultivation in Germany. Genetically modified Bt-maize expresses a toxin which is lethal for the larvae of a main pest in maize production, the European Corn Borer. From 2005 to 2008, the cultivation of this transgenic crop was legally possible in Germany and adoption took mainly place in the former eastern German federal states. In four empirical chapters, the aspects of 1) risk perception and institutional preferences, 2) hierarchical or co-operative provision of the good “GMO-free atmosphere”, 3) regional adoption patterns of Bt-maize and 4) the adoption as a bargaining game will be analysed. It becomes apparent that actors with a strong risk perception prefer stricter institutions when dealing with the cultivation of GM crops and also favour hierarchical governance forms instead of co-operative solutions. The adoption of Bt-maize at the federal state level in Germany is significantly influenced by the factor maize area per farm. When conceptualizing Bt-maize adoption as a game under a strict regulatory framework and different agricultural and social structures, several measures can be identified which are employed by the actors to improve one’s own bargaining position, such as private agreements on the reduction of isolation distances or impair the one of the opposite player through public pressure or field destructions

Analysis of loads and movements in the region of the lumbar spine and the automatic distinction of upper body motions

Rückenschmerzen haben eine ausgesprochen hohe Inzidenz. Bei der Diagnose und Dokumentation kommen neben klassischen bildgebenden Verfahren auch Messtechniken zum Einsatz, welche die objektive Möglichkeit bieten, die Bewegungsumfänge und die geschwindigkeiten der Lendenwirbelsäule zu erfassen und das Verhalten im Alltag zu beurteilen. In dieser Arbeit sollen Normwerte für den Bewegungsumfang und die geschwindigkeiten in der Sagittalebene ermittelt werden, ein Algorithmus entwickelt werden, der eine automatisierte Unterscheidung zwischen Oberkörperbewegungen erlaubt, sowie die Rückenform und die simultan auf die Lendenwirbelsäule wirkenden Kräfte miteinander verglichen werden. Das portable Epionics SPINE System (Epionics Medical GmbH, Potsdam) ermöglicht die nicht-invasive Erfassung der Rückenform und deren Veränderungen auch im Alltag. Es wurde benutzt, um 429 rückengesunde Probanden sowie 4 Patienten mit einem instrumentierten Wirbel-körperimplantat zu vermessen. Der Algorithmus zur Unterscheidung der Oberkörperbewegungen wurde mittels einer Mustererkennung realisiert. Für den Bewegungsumfang der Lendenwirbelsäule in der Sagittalebene betragen die ermittelten Normwerte für die Flexion 50,8±10,9° und für die Extension 25,0±11,5°. Die entsprechenden Werte für die Geschwindigkeit betragen 102,6±33,2°/s bzw. 62,1±28,2°/s. Den Haupteinfluss auf die Parameter hat das Alter, gefolgt von dem Geschlecht. Eine Unterscheidung zwischen den Bewegungen des Oberkörpers ist für definierte Bewegungen mit einer Genauigkeit von über 96 % möglich. Der Vergleich zwischen dem Lordosewinkel und den parallel auf die Lendenwirbelsäule wirkenden Kräfte zeigt eine gute Korrelation bei der Oberkörperflexion im Stehen und im Sitzen (Korrelation ≤ -0,6). Für die anderen Übungen variieren die vorliegenden Korrelationen zwischen den Patienten stark. Mit den ermittelten Normwerten für die Bewegungsumfänge und die geschwindigkeiten der Lendenwirbelsäule in der Sagittalebene ist eine Einordnung neuer Patientendaten möglich. Die Bewegungserkennung kann dazu dienen, Aufschluss über das Verhalten von Patienten im Alltag zu erhalten, um individuelle Empfehlungen zu geben. Eine Schlussfolgerung von der Rückenform auf die wirkenden Belastungen ist nur bedingt möglich.There is a high incidence of low back pain. Besides classic imaging, novel tools are used for diagnosis and documentation which provide access to the lumbar range of motion and kinematic parameters, as well as to daily behavior. The actual work is aimed at presenting normative data for lumbar range of motion and velocities in the sagittal plane; additionally, it focuses on developing an algorithm for the automatic recognition of upper body movement and comparing spinal shape to simultaneously acting loads on the lumbar spine. The portable Epionics SPINE system (Epionics Medical GmbH, Potsdam) allows the non-invasive assessment of the spinal shape and variation, also during normal activities. The system was used to assess upper body movement in 429 healthy volunteers and in 4 patients who received an instrumented vertebral body replacement. The algorithm to identify different upper body movement was realized with pattern recognition. Normative data for the lumbar range of motion in the sagittal plane are 50.8±10.9° for flexion and 25.0±11.5° for extension, and corresponding for the range of kinematics 102.6±33.2°/s and 62.1±28.2°/s, respectively. Age primarily influences these parameters, followed by gender. A differentiation between defined upper body movements is possible with an accuracy of more than 96 %. The correlation between lordosis angle and simultaneously acting loads was high for upper body flexion while standing and sitting (correlation ≤ -0.6). Result variation between patients is high for other movement. This normative data, for lumbar range of motion and velocities in the sagittal plane, will facilitate future patient data comparison. Movement recognition can be used to provide information about the patients’ daily behavior in order to provide individual council. The possibility to deduce from the back shape to the acting loads is limited

Economic and Environmental Consequences of the ECJ Genome Editing Judgement in Agriculture

Genome edited crops are on the verge of being placed on the market and their agricultural and food products will thus be internationally traded soon. National regulation, however, diverges regarding the classification of genome edited crops. Major countries such as the US and Brazil do not specifically regulate genome edited crops, while in the European Union they fall under GMO legislation, according to the European Court of Justice (ECJ). As it is in some cases impossible to analytically distinguish products from genome edited plants compared to non-genome edited plants, EU importers may fear the risk of violating EU legislation. They may choose to not import anymore agricultural and food products based on crops, for which genome edited varieties are available. As a consequence, crop products, for which the EU is currently a net importer, would become more expensive in the EU and production would intensify. Furthermore, strong substitution among products covered and not covered by genome editing would occur in consumption, production and trade. We analyse the effects of such a cease of EU imports for cereals and soy on the EU agricultural sector with the comparative static agricultural sector equilibrium model CAPRI. Our results indicate that effects on agricultural and food prices as well as farm income are strong, and the intensification of EU agriculture may result in negative net environmental effects in the EU as well as increases in global greenhouse gas emissions. This suggests that the trade effects should be taken into account when developing domestic regulation for genome edited crops

An econometric analysis of regional adoption patterns of Bt maize in Germany

In this study, our goal is to identify and explain the underlying factors that drive regional adoption of Bt maize MON810 in Germany. Since regional differences cannot be explained by the occurrence of the target pest alone, we assume that under the given regulatory framework for genetically modified (GM) crop production in Germany, farm structures as well as the sociopolitical environment have also influenced regional adoption rates during the past years. Following a description of the relevant legal and economic framework in Germany, we develop theoretical hypotheses for regional variation in Bt maize adoption and test them econometrically with unique data at the federal state (Laender) and county (Landkreis) level. According to our analysis at the federal state level, the maize acreage per farm is the main driver of Bt maize adoption. In addition, there are signs that public opposition to GM cultivation as measured by membership in the German Friends of the Earth association significantly dampens GM cultivation. At the level of Brandenburg counties, the regional infestation frequency of the European Corn Borer, the target pest of Bt-Maize, is the major determinant of adoption. Although Bt maize is a scale-neutral technology for controlling damages caused by the Corn Borer, additional fixed costs due to regulation make the technology scale dependent. Copyright (c) 2010 International Association of Agricultural Economists.

Velocity of Lordosis Angle during Spinal Flexion and Extension

The importance of functional parameters for evaluating the severity of low back pain is gaining clinical recognition, with evidence suggesting that the angular velocity of lordosis is critical for identification of musculoskeletal deficits. However, there is a lack of data regarding the range of functional kinematics (RoKs), particularly which include the changing shape and curvature of the spine. We address this deficit by characterising the angular velocity of lordosis throughout the thoracolumbar spine according to age and gender. The velocity of lumbar back shape changes was measured using Epionics SPINE during maximum flexion and extension activities in 429 asymptomatic volunteers. The difference between maximum positive and negative velocities represented the RoKs. The mean RoKs for flexion decreased with age; 114°/s (20–35 years), 100°/s (36–50 years) and 83°/s (51–75 years). For extension, the corresponding mean RoKs were 73°/s, 57°/s and 47°/s. ANCOVA analyses revealed that age and gender had the largest influence on the RoKs (p<0.05). The Epionics SPINE system allows the rapid assessment of functional kinematics in the lumbar spine. The results of this study now serve as normative data for comparison to patients with spinal pathology or after surgical treatment.ISSN:1932-620

Results of the two-way ANOVA analysis showing the interaction effects of different velocity measures.

<p>A major influence was observed for the maximum velocities of flexion and extension. The degree of freedom was 2 in all cases. ^* indicates statistical significance at p<0.05.</p

On the regulation of spatial externalities: coexistence between GM and conventional crops in the EU and the 'newcomer principle'

Pollen-mediated gene flow is one of the main concerns associated with the introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops. Should a premium for non-GM varieties emerge on the market, ‘contamination’ by GM pollen would generate a revenue loss for growers of non-GM varieties. This paper analyses the problem of pollen-mediated gene flow as a particular type of production externality. The model, although simple, provides useful insights into coexistence policies. Following on from this and taking GM herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape (Brassica napus) as a model crop, a Monte Carlo simulation is used to generate data and then estimate the effect of several important policy variables (including width of buffer zones and spatial aggregation) on the magnitude of the externality associated with pollen-mediated gene flow