Commencement address

Address to the graduating class of 1968 by Carl P. Wellman, Claflin-Ingraham Professor of Philosophy

DERECHOS: PROBLEMAS FILOSÓFICOS Y PROPUESTAS DE SOLUCIÓN

The author presents in this paper various aspects of his proposal for general theory of rights. This theory takes legal rights as the model for rights in general. Its first purpose addresses to the need of clarifying the rights discourse, both because of theoretical and practical reasons, that is, considering the need of setting out the practical scope of each right. This could be achieved analyzing the language of rights in terms of the fundamental legal categories analyzed by W. N. Hohfeld. The theory also highlights the adversarial nature of rights and the complexity of their internal structure. All these aspects appear too in the case of moral rights, whose singular grounding problems are also addressed. The text ends with some considerations relating to potential rights holders and a special category of rights: human rights.El autor presenta en este texto diversos aspectos de su propuesta de teoría general de los derechos. Esta teoría toma a los legales como modelo de los derechos en general. Se plantea como primer objetivo la necesidad de esclarecer el discurso de los derechos, tanto por razones teóricas como prácticas, esto es, para detallar el alcance práctico de cada derecho. Este objetivo podría lograrse con la aplicación de categorías fundamentales que analizó W. N. Hohfeld al lenguaje de los derechos. También se pone de manifiesto la naturaleza contenciosa de los derechos así como la complejidad de su estructura interna. Todos esos aspectos se reproducen en el caso de los derechos morales, cuyos singulares problemas de fundamentación también son abordados. El texto se cierra con algunas consideraciones relativas a los posibles titulares de los derechos y a una categoría singular de derechos: los derechos humanos

Children's understanding of food and its functions: A preliminary study of the development of concepts of nutrition

Children's developing conceptions of how the body functions nutritionally were examined. Two different tasks provided converging findings. One task asked children to judge the causes of certain end states (e.g., why X is fat). The second task asked children to judge the result of certain contrasting diets (e.g., twin-1 eats twice as much candy as twin-2). The results evidenced; (a) systematic misconceptions on the part of kindergarteners that were overcome by sixth grade; and (b) other fairly sophisticated conceptions present even at the youngest ages tested. The research provides a needed first step toward describing the naive theories of nutrition possessed by children at different ages. Knowledge of childrens' theories of nutrition are essential for optimal planning of curricula and methods in nutrition education.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/24015/1/0000264.pd

Steady-state modulation of voltage-gated K+ channels in rat arterial smooth muscle by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and protein phosphatase 2B

Voltage-gated potassium channels (Kv) are important regulators of membrane potential in vascular smooth muscle cells, which is integral to controlling intracellular Ca2+ concentration and regulating vascular tone. Previous work indicates that Kv channels can be modulated by receptor-driven alterations of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) activity. Here, we demonstrate that Kv channel activity is maintained by tonic activity of PKA. Whole-cell recording was used to assess the effect of manipulating PKA signalling on Kv and ATP-dependent K+ channels of rat mesenteric artery smooth muscle cells. Application of PKA inhibitors, KT5720 or H89, caused a significant inhibition of Kv currents. Tonic PKA-mediated activation of Kv appears maximal as application of isoprenaline (a β-adrenoceptor agonist) or dibutyryl-cAMP failed to enhance Kv currents. We also show that this modulation of Kv by PKA can be reversed by protein phosphatase 2B/calcineurin (PP2B). PKA-dependent inhibition of Kv by KT5720 can be abrogated by pre-treatment with the PP2B inhibitor cyclosporin A, or inclusion of a PP2B auto-inhibitory peptide in the pipette solution. Finally, we demonstrate that tonic PKA-mediated modulation of Kv requires intact caveolae. Pre-treatment of the cells with methyl-β-cyclodextrin to deplete cellular cholesterol, or adding caveolin-scaffolding domain peptide to the pipette solution to disrupt caveolae-dependent signalling each attenuated PKA-mediated modulation of the Kv current. These findings highlight a novel, caveolae-dependent, tonic modulatory role of PKA on Kv channels providing new insight into mechanisms and the potential for pharmacological manipulation of vascular tone

Principal role of adenylyl cyclase 6 in K+ channel regulation and vasodilator signalling in vascular smooth muscle cells

AIMS: Membrane potential is a key determinant of vascular tone and many vasodilators act through the modulation of ion channel currents [e.g. the ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K(ATP))] involved in setting the membrane potential. Adenylyl cyclase (AC) isoenzymes are potentially important intermediaries in such vasodilator signalling pathways. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) express multiple AC isoenzymes, but the reason for such redundancy is unknown. We investigated which of these isoenzymes are involved in vasodilator signalling and regulation of vascular ion channels important in modulating membrane potential. METHODS AND RESULTS: AC isoenzymes were selectively depleted (by >75%) by transfection of cultured VSMCs with selective short interfering RNA sequences. AC6 was the predominant isoenzyme involved in vasodilator-mediated cAMP accumulation in VSMCs, accounting for ∼60% of the total response to β-adrenoceptor (β-AR) stimulation. AC3 played a minor role in β-AR signalling, whereas AC5 made no significant contribution. AC6 was also the principal isoenzyme involved in β-AR-mediated protein kinase A (PKA) signalling (determined using the fluorescent biosensor for PKA activity, AKAR3) and the substantial β-AR/PKA-dependent enhancement of K(ATP) current. K(ATP) current was shown to play a vital role in setting the resting membrane potential and in mediating the hyperpolarization observed upon β-AR stimulation. CONCLUSION: AC6, but not the closely related AC5, plays a principal role in vasodilator signalling and regulation of the membrane potential in VSMCs. These findings identify AC6 as a vital component in the vasodilatory apparatus central to the control of blood pressure

Elevated protein concentrations in newborn blood and the risks of autism spectrum disorder, and of social impairment, at age 10 years among infants born before the 28th week of gestation

Among the 1 of 10 children who are born preterm annually in the United States, 6% are born before the third trimester. Among children who survive birth before the 28th week of gestation, the risks of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and non-autistic social impairment are severalfold higher than in the general population. We examined the relationship between top quartile inflammation-related protein concentrations among children born extremely preterm and ASD or, separately, a high score on the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS total score ≥65) among those who did not meet ASD criteria, using information only from the subset of children whose DAS-II verbal or non-verbal IQ was ≥70, who were assessed for ASD, and who had proteins measured in blood collected on ≥2 days (N = 763). ASD (N = 36) assessed at age 10 years is associated with recurrent top quartile concentrations of inflammation-related proteins during the first post-natal month (e.g., SAA odds ratio (OR); 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.5; 1.2–5.3) and IL-6 (OR; 95% CI: 2.6; 1.03–6.4)). Top quartile concentrations of neurotrophic proteins appear to moderate the increased risk of ASD associated with repeated top quartile concentrations of inflammation-related proteins. High (top quartile) concentrations of SAA are associated with elevated risk of ASD (2.8; 1.2–6.7) when Ang-1 concentrations are below the top quartile, but not when Ang-1 concentrations are high (1.3; 0.3–5.8). Similarly, high concentrations of TNF-α are associated with heightened risk of SRS-defined social impairment (N = 130) (2.0; 1.1–3.8) when ANG-1 concentrations are not high, but not when ANG-1 concentrations are elevated (0.5; 0.1–4.2)

Religious Human Rights and Peace Interrelationship between Human Rights and Peace

This paper assumes the author’s conceptual analysis of rights as complexes of Hohfeldian positions that confer dominion on the right-holder in face of one or more second parties and his theory of moral reasons as essentially social dual-aspect practical reasons, both explained in previously published books. It analyses the international human right to have or adopt a religion or belief of one’s choice and the international human right to manifest one’s religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching as liberties of individual human beings protected by duties of non-interference and immunities from extinction holding against State Parties. It then identifies their moral grounds, the most important moral justifications for recognizing and maintaining these religious human rights in international law. It suggests that these are analogous moral religious human rights and some of the morally proper purposes of international law, including the promotion of international peace. It explains how the problematic human rights to change one’s religion or belief and to proselytize one’s religion or belief can be derived from the more basic human rights to have or adopt a religion or belief and to manifest one’s religion or belief respectively. It examines the reasons that many deny these rights and argues that, correctly interpreted, they are morally justified. Finally it reexamines the question as to whether the human rights to have or adopt a religion or belief and to manifest one’s religion or belief do more to threaten or to promote peace. It argues that although these human rights threaten peace to a limited extent, on balance they would, if universally respected, protect and enhance both internal and international peace even more. It concludes that there are two important relations between these religious human rights and peace. Both would be conducive to peace were they universally respected. And this fact is one of the moral grounds of these human rights in international law. زیر بنای این مقاله دو نظریه‌ای است که نویسنده همین مقاله در کتاب‌های قبلی خود تحلیل و بررسی نموده‌است. نظریه‌ی اول تحلیل مفهومی حقوق است که نویسنده آن‌را مجموعه‌ای از نظرات هوهفیلدی( hohfeldian) می‌داند که در دعاوی میان افراد سلطه را به ذی‌حق واگذار می‌کند. دومین فرض این مقاله نظریه نویسنده در مورد مبانی اخلاق است که آن‌ها را مبانی عملی و دو وجهی از نظر اجتماعی می‌داند. این مقاله با در نظر گرفتن این فرضیات به تحلیل دو حق بین‌المللی می‌پردازد. اول، حق داشتن دین یا پذیرفتن یک دین و یا یک اعتقاد خاص از روی میل و رغبت و دوم، حق بین‌المللی اظهار دین از طریق عبادت، مراعات، رعایت و یا تعلیم آن. هر دوی این حق از جمله آزادی‌هایی هستند از دولت انتظار می‌رود به‌صورت غیرمداخله‌گرایانه در حفظ آن‌ها بکوشد و یا از انقراض آن جلوگیری کند. این مقاله در ادامه به‌بررسی مبانی اخلاقی این دو حق و یا به‌عبارتی بررسی مهم‌ترین استدلال‌های اخلاقی در مورد به‌رسمیت شناختن و حفظ این دو حق مذهبی در نظام حقوق بین‌المللی می‌پردازد و این نظریه را مطرح می‌کند که مبانی نظری این حقوق مشابه یکدیگر هستند و با بعضی از اهداف نظام بین‌المللی من جمله ارتقای صلح بین‌المللی نیز هم‌خوانی دارند. در این مقاله این مسئله نیز مورد بررسی قرار می‌گیرد که چگونه حق جنجالی تغییر دین و یا ترغیب دیگران به تغییر دین با این دو حق یعنی حق داشتن و یا پذیرفتن یک دین و یا ابراز آن هم‌خوانی دارد. در این مقاله استدلال‌های عده زیادی که که این حقوق را انکار می‌کنند نیز مورد بررسی قرار خواهد گرفت و نویسنده استدلال می‌کند که اگر برداشت صحیحی از این حقوق وجود داشته باشد از نظر اخلاقی کاملا توجیه پذیرند. در پایان این مقاله مجددا به بررسی این سوال می‌پردازد که آیا حق داشتن یا پذیرفتن یک دین خاص هم‌چنین حق اظهار آن باعث تهدید صلح جهانی و یا افزایش آن می‌شود و در جواب این سوال استدلال می‌کند که اگرچه این حقوق تا حدی این صلح را به خطر می‌اندازند اما اگر همگان به این حقوق احترام بگذارند در نهایت باعث حفظ و افزایش صلح در داخل کشورها و صلح بین‌المللی خواهد شد. به‌عنوان نتیجه‌گیری این مقاله دو رابطه مهم بین حقوق مذهبی و صلح بین‌المللی را مورد اشاره قرار می‌دهد و این گونه استدلال می‌کند که این دو حق به صلح منجر خواهد شد به شرط آنکه همگان این حقوق را مورد احترام قرار دهند و این واقعیت یکی از دلایل و مبانی اخلاقی این حقوق در نظام بین‌المللی‌است