Development and implementation of a highly-multiplexed SNP array for genetic mapping in maritime pine and comparative mapping with loblolly pine

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most abundant source of genetic variation among individuals of a species. New genotyping technologies allow examining hundreds to thousands of SNPs in a single reaction for a wide range of applications such as genetic diversity analysis, linkage mapping, fine QTL mapping, association studies, marker-assisted or genome-wide selection. In this paper, we evaluated the potential of highly-multiplexed SNP genotyping for genetic mapping in maritime pine (<it>Pinus pinaster </it>Ait.), the main conifer used for commercial plantation in southwestern Europe.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>We designed a custom GoldenGate assay for 1,536 SNPs detected through the resequencing of gene fragments (707 <it>in vitro </it>SNPs/Indels) and from Sanger-derived Expressed Sequenced Tags assembled into a unigene set (829 <it>in silico </it>SNPs/Indels). Offspring from three-generation outbred (G2) and inbred (F2) pedigrees were genotyped. The success rate of the assay was 63.6% and 74.8% for <it>in silico </it>and <it>in vitro </it>SNPs, respectively. A genotyping error rate of 0.4% was further estimated from segregating data of SNPs belonging to the same gene. Overall, 394 SNPs were available for mapping. A total of 287 SNPs were integrated with previously mapped markers in the G2 parental maps, while 179 SNPs were localized on the map generated from the analysis of the F2 progeny. Based on 98 markers segregating in both pedigrees, we were able to generate a consensus map comprising 357 SNPs from 292 different loci. Finally, the analysis of sequence homology between mapped markers and their orthologs in a <it>Pinus taeda </it>linkage map, made it possible to align the 12 linkage groups of both species.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Our results show that the GoldenGate assay can be used successfully for high-throughput SNP genotyping in maritime pine, a conifer species that has a genome seven times the size of the human genome. This SNP-array will be extended thanks to recent sequencing effort using new generation sequencing technologies and will include SNPs from comparative orthologous sequences that were identified in the present study, providing a wider collection of anchor points for comparative genomics among the conifers.</p

In Vitro vs In Silico Detected SNPs for the Development of a Genotyping Array: What Can We Learn from a Non-Model Species?

Background: There is considerable interest in the high-throughput discovery and genotyping of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to accelerate genetic mapping and enable association studies. This study provides an assessment of EST-derived and resequencing-derived SNP quality in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.), a conifer characterized by a huge genome size (~23.8 Gb/C). [br/] Methodology/Principal Findings: A 384-SNPs GoldenGate genotyping array was built from i/ 184 SNPs originally detected in a set of 40 re-sequenced candidate genes (in vitro SNPs), chosen on the basis of functionality scores, presence of neighboring polymorphisms, minor allele frequencies and linkage disequilibrium and ii/ 200 SNPs screened from ESTs (in silico SNPs) selected based on the number of ESTs used for SNP detection, the SNP minor allele frequency and the quality of SNP flanking sequences. The global success rate of the assay was 66.9%, and a conversion rate (considering only polymorphic SNPs) of 51% was achieved. In vitro SNPs showed significantly higher genotyping-success and conversion rates than in silico SNPs (+11.5% and +18.5%, respectively). The reproducibility was 100%, and the genotyping error rate very low (0.54%, dropping down to 0.06% when removing four SNPs showing elevated error rates). [br/] Conclusions/Significance: This study demonstrates that ESTs provide a resource for SNP identification in non-model species, which do not require any additional bench work and little bio-informatics analysis. However, the time and cost benefits of in silico SNPs are counterbalanced by a lower conversion rate than in vitro SNPs. This drawback is acceptable for population-based experiments, but could be dramatic in experiments involving samples from narrow genetic backgrounds. In addition, we showed that both the visual inspection of genotyping clusters and the estimation of a per SNP error rate should help identify markers that are not suitable to the GoldenGate technology in species characterized by a large and complex genome

High-quality SNPs from genic regions highlight introgression patterns among European white oaks (Quercus petraea and Q. robur)

International audienceIn the post-genomics era, non-model species like most Fagaceae still lack operational diversity resources for population genomics studies. Sequence data were produced from over 800 gene fragments covering ~530 kb across the genic partition of European oaks, in a discovery panel of 25 individuals from western and central Europe (11 Quercus petraea, 13 Q. robur, one Q. ilex as an outgroup). Regions targeted represented broad functional categories potentially involved in species ecological preferences, and a random set of genes. Using a high-quality dedicated pipeline, we provide a detailed characterization of these genic regions, which included over 14500 polymorphisms, with ~12500 SNPs −218 being triallelic-, over 1500 insertion-deletions, and ~200 novel di- and tri-nucleotide SSR loci. This catalog also provides various summary statistics within and among species, gene ontology information, and standard formats to assist loci choice for genotyping projects. The distribution of nucleotide diversity (θπ) and differentiation (FST) across genic regions are also described for the first time in those species, with a mean n θπ close to ~0.0049 in Q. petraea and to ~0.0045 in Q. robur across random regions, and a mean FST ~0.13 across SNPs. The magnitude of diversity across genes is within the range estimated for long-term perennial outcrossers, and can be considered relatively high in the plant kingdom, with an estimate across the genome of 41 to 51 million SNPs expected in both species. Individuals with typical species morphology were more easily assigned to their corresponding genetic cluster for Q. robur than for Q. petraea, revealing higher or more recent introgression in Q. petraea and a stronger species integration in Q. robur in this particular discovery panel. We also observed robust patterns of a slightly but significantly higher diversity in Q. petraea, across a random gene set and in the abiotic stress functional category, and a heterogeneous landscape of both diversity and differentiation. To explain these patterns, we discuss an alternative and non-exclusive hypothesis of stronger selective constraints in Q. robur, the most pioneering species in oak forest stand dynamics, additionally to the recognized and documented introgression history in both species despite their strong reproductive barriers. The quality of the data provided here and their representativity in terms of species genomic diversity make them useful for possible applications in medium-scale landscape and molecular ecology projects. Moreover, they can serve as reference resources for validation purposes in larger-scale resequencing projects. This type of project is preferentially recommended in oaks in contrast to SNP array development, given the large nucleotide variation and the low levels of linkage disequilibrium revealed

Association genetics in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) for growth and wood quality traits

Au cours des quarante dernières années, l’optimisation des méthodes sylvicoles et l’introduction de variétés améliorées ont permis d’accroître considérablement la productivité du pin maritime. Pour permettre à la filière bois de disposer d’une matière première de qualité sur ce matériel amélioré, un programme de recherches multidisciplinaire a été développé afin d’étudier le déterminisme génétique de la qualité du bois. Neuf facteurs de transcription potentiellement impliqués dans la xylogenèse et l’adaptation des arbres à leur milieu, ont tout d’abord été séquencés dans la population Aquitaine, et leurs patrons de diversité nucléotidique ont été étudiés. Ces patrons ont été comparés à l’attendu de modèles neutres d’évolution et s’en écartent par un niveau élevé de déséquilibre de liaison et l’excès de mutations en fréquences intermédiaires détectés pour trois de ces gènes (HDZ31, LIM2 et MYB1). Ces résultats suggèrent des changements de taille de population affectant l’ensemble du génome, et l’action de sélection balancée sur l’un d’entre eux (MYB1). Les géniteurs de la population d’amélioration Aquitaine ont ensuite été génotypés pour 384 marqueurs moléculaires et évalués pour la croissance et les propriétés chimiques du bois. Ces données moléculaires et phénotypiques ont permis de mettre en évidence des associations significatives entre la variation pour le diamètre du tronc ou la teneur en cellulose du bois et deux marqueurs situés respectivement dans un facteur de transcription HD-Zip (HDZ31) et dans un gène encodant une fascicline. La cohérence des résultats de génétique évolutive et de génétique d’association ouvre ainsi des perspectives encourageantes pour la compréhension de l’architecture génétique de la formation du bois chez cette espèce. Cependant, le faible nombre d’associations significatives pose de nombreux problèmes théoriques et méthodologiques qui sont discutés en vue d’améliorations pour de nouveaux designs expérimentaux.During the last four decades, the optimization of silvicultural and tree breeding methods has contributed to improve growth and wood homogeneity of maritime pine. In order to provide the different actors of the forestry wood-chain with high quality raw material, the genetic determinism and chemical components of wood quality are being studied in the frame of a multidisciplinary research program. First, nine transcription factors putatively involved in wood formation have been sequenced in the Aquitaine population, and their nucleotide diversity pattern studied. Since these genes potentially play important roles in the adaptation of trees to their environment, their patterns have been compared to those expected under neutral evolution. Strong departures from neutrality were observed, with high levels of linkage disequilibrium and an excess of intermediate frequency variants for three of them (HDZ31, LIM2 and MYB1), which could be linked to population size changes that affected the whole genome, and to balancing selection effects at one of them (MYB1). Secondly, the genitors of the Aquitaine breeding population were genotyped for 384 markers and evaluated for growth and wood chemical properties. Significant associations were detected for two markers, one in a HD-Zip transcription factor (HDZ31) with growth, and the other in a gene coding for a fasciclin protein with cellulose content. The consistency of evolutionary and molecular genetics opens encouraging perspectives for understanding the genetic architecture of wood formation in this species. However, the low number of associations detected raises several theoretical and methodological issues which are discussed for the perspective of improving future experimental designs

Association genetics in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) for growth and wood quality traits

Diplôme : Dr. d'UniversitéDuring the last four decades, the optimization of silvicultural and tree breeding methods has contributed to improve growth and wood homogeneity of maritime pine. In order to provide the different actors of the forestry wood-chain with high quality raw material, the genetic determinism and chemical components of wood quality are being studied in the frame of a multidisciplinary research program. First, nine transcription factors putatively involved in wood formation have been sequenced in the Aquitaine population, and their nucleotide diversity pattern studied. Since these genes potentially play important roles in the adaptation of trees to their environment, their patterns have been compared to those expected under neutral evolution. Strong departures from neutrality were observed, with high levels of linkage disequilibrium and an excess of intermediate frequency variants for three of them (HDZ31, LIM2 and MYB1), which could be linked to population size changes that affected the whole genome, and to balancing selection effects at one of them (MYB1). Secondly, the genitors of the Aquitaine breeding population were genotyped for 384 markers and evaluated for growth and wood chemical properties. Significant associations were detected for two markers, one in a HD-Zip transcription factor (HDZ31) with growth, and the other in a gene coding for a fasciclin protein with cellulose content. The consistency of evolutionary and molecular genetics opens encouraging perspectives for understanding the genetic architecture of wood formation in this species. However, the low number of associations detected raises several theoretical and methodological issues which are discussed for the perspective of improving future experimental designs.Au cours des quarante dernières années, l’optimisation des méthodes sylvicoles et l’introduction de variétés améliorées ont permis d’accroître considérablement la productivité du pin maritime. Pour permettre à la filière bois de disposer d’une matière première de qualité sur ce matériel amélioré, un programme de recherches multidisciplinaire a été développé afin d’étudier le déterminisme génétique de la qualité du bois. Neuf facteurs de transcription potentiellement impliqués dans la xylogenèse et l’adaptation des arbres à leur milieu, ont tout d’abord été séquencés dans la population Aquitaine, et leurs patrons de diversité nucléotidique ont été étudiés. Ces patrons ont été comparés à l’attendu de modèles neutres d’évolution et s’en écartent par un niveau élevé de déséquilibre de liaison et l’excès de mutations en fréquences intermédiaires détectés pour trois de ces gènes (HDZ31, LIM2 et MYB1). Ces résultats suggèrent des changements de taille de population affectant l’ensemble du génome, et l’action de sélection balancée sur l’un d’entre eux (MYB1). Les géniteurs de la population d’amélioration Aquitaine ont ensuite été génotypés pour 384 marqueurs moléculaires et évalués pour la croissance et les propriétés chimiques du bois. Ces données moléculaires et phénotypiques ont permis de mettre en évidence des associations significatives entre la variation pour le diamètre du tronc ou la teneur en cellulose du bois et deux marqueurs situés respectivement dans un facteur de transcription HD-Zip (HDZ31) et dans un gène encodant une fascicline. La cohérence des résultats de génétique évolutive et de génétique d’association ouvre ainsi des perspectives encourageantes pour la compréhension de l’architecture génétique de la formation du bois chez cette espèce. Cependant, le faible nombre d’associations significatives pose de nombreux problèmes théoriques et méthodologiques qui sont discutés en vue d’améliorations pour de nouveaux designs expérimentaux

Association genetics in maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) for growth and wood quality traits

Au cours des quarante dernières années, l’optimisation des méthodes sylvicoles et l’introduction de variétés améliorées ont permis d’accroître considérablement la productivité du pin maritime. Pour permettre à la filière bois de disposer d’une matière première de qualité sur ce matériel amélioré, un programme de recherches multidisciplinaire a été développé afin d’étudier le déterminisme génétique de la qualité du bois. Neuf facteurs de transcription potentiellement impliqués dans la xylogenèse et l’adaptation des arbres à leur milieu, ont tout d’abord été séquencés dans la population Aquitaine, et leurs patrons de diversité nucléotidique ont été étudiés. Ces patrons ont été comparés à l’attendu de modèles neutres d’évolution et s’en écartent par un niveau élevé de déséquilibre de liaison et l’excès de mutations en fréquences intermédiaires détectés pour trois de ces gènes (HDZ31, LIM2 et MYB1). Ces résultats suggèrent des changements de taille de population affectant l’ensemble du génome, et l’action de sélection balancée sur l’un d’entre eux (MYB1). Les géniteurs de la population d’amélioration Aquitaine ont ensuite été génotypés pour 384 marqueurs moléculaires et évalués pour la croissance et les propriétés chimiques du bois. Ces données moléculaires et phénotypiques ont permis de mettre en évidence des associations significatives entre la variation pour le diamètre du tronc ou la teneur en cellulose du bois et deux marqueurs situés respectivement dans un facteur de transcription HD-Zip (HDZ31) et dans un gène encodant une fascicline. La cohérence des résultats de génétique évolutive et de génétique d’association ouvre ainsi des perspectives encourageantes pour la compréhension de l’architecture génétique de la formation du bois chez cette espèce. Cependant, le faible nombre d’associations significatives pose de nombreux problèmes théoriques et méthodologiques qui sont discutés en vue d’améliorations pour de nouveaux designs expérimentaux.During the last four decades, the optimization of silvicultural and tree breeding methods has contributed to improve growth and wood homogeneity of maritime pine. In order to provide the different actors of the forestry wood-chain with high quality raw material, the genetic determinism and chemical components of wood quality are being studied in the frame of a multidisciplinary research program. First, nine transcription factors putatively involved in wood formation have been sequenced in the Aquitaine population, and their nucleotide diversity pattern studied. Since these genes potentially play important roles in the adaptation of trees to their environment, their patterns have been compared to those expected under neutral evolution. Strong departures from neutrality were observed, with high levels of linkage disequilibrium and an excess of intermediate frequency variants for three of them (HDZ31, LIM2 and MYB1), which could be linked to population size changes that affected the whole genome, and to balancing selection effects at one of them (MYB1). Secondly, the genitors of the Aquitaine breeding population were genotyped for 384 markers and evaluated for growth and wood chemical properties. Significant associations were detected for two markers, one in a HD-Zip transcription factor (HDZ31) with growth, and the other in a gene coding for a fasciclin protein with cellulose content. The consistency of evolutionary and molecular genetics opens encouraging perspectives for understanding the genetic architecture of wood formation in this species. However, the low number of associations detected raises several theoretical and methodological issues which are discussed for the perspective of improving future experimental designs