Rule Utilitarian and Deontologist Perspectives on Comparisons of Torture and Killing

In this Note, I provide potential replies for two important groups that support a universal prohibition of torture. Each arrives at the same conclusion by using different modes of analysis. Consequently, both groups must overcome different obstacles to distinguish torture and legal killing. Ultimately, both groups successfully defend their point. In Section I, I describe the argument that torture should be permitted because it results in less physical harm than legal killing. However repulsive the practice may be, torture usually leaves the victim alive to see another day. If killing is sometimes permissible, analogical reasoning suggests that torture ought to be sometimes permissible as well. From this comparison, many conclude that the law ought to allow officials to torture to prevent imminent catastrophes. This argument can be dissected into a six-step syllogism. It makes two claims and one important assumption. In Section II, I present rule utilitarianism\u27s reply to this argument. I describe how rule utilitarians analyze morality. Rule utilitarians conclude that torture must be banned unconditionally for two reasons. First, the benefits of allowing some torture are marginal and uncertain, while the costs are substantial, given the distinct likelihood of unnecessary torture. Second, allowing some torture might drive a slippery slope to torture in less justifiable circumstances. But why are rule utilitarians not similarly concerned about unnecessary killings and a slippery slope to more killing? What makes torture so different that it requires a universal ban? Numerous inherent epistemic barriers and conceptual obstacles distinguish torture and killing. First, to interpret the preconditions for torture correctly, officials must overcome the modal problem of distinguishing possible dangers and actual threats, and then overcome—conceptual vagueness in the terms imminence and catastrophe. Second, our inability to distinguish false and truthful disclosures of subjects causes the infliction of unnecessary pain. Third, conceptual vagueness in the term suspect, only exacerbated by the frustration of war, makes torture more susceptible to the slippery slope. Finally, because prohibition of torture epitomizes the legal archetype of non-brutality, legalizing torture has a unique ability to affect other laws. In Section III, I provide deontology\u27s reply to the objection. I describe how deontologists analyze morality and how their analysis differs from rule utilitarianism. Deontologists forbid torture under all circumstances because it violates the victim\u27s rights. Such doctrinal rigidity attracts much criticism, particularly in the face of catastrophic danger, but deontologists effectively expose the weaknesses of these criticisms. Responding to analogies to legal killings, deontologists present two arguments. First, the objection contains a hidden premise that deontologists reject, ultimately dismantling the syllogism. Second, using the moral criteria deontologists accept, torture and the state-sanctioned killings can be distinguished. Torture attacks the defenseless and specifically targets human dignity

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARASTERISTIC OF URBAN AEROSOL OF CENTRAL BALKANS (BELGRADE)

Size-segregated urban aerosol of Belgrade center (44049'14''N, 20027'44''E) was studied during the summer-autumn 2008. The representative location in traffic area Studentski trg was chosen for investigating physical and chemical characteristics of collected particles. Particle size distribution in the size range Dp £ 0.49 µm, 0.49 £ Dp £ 0.95 µm, 0.95 £ Dp £ 1.5 µm, 1.5 £ Dp £ 3.0 µm, 3.0 £ Dp £ 7.2 µm and Dp ³ 7.2 µm were measured. Aerosol samples were submitted to gravimetric SEM analysis. The shape, size and chemical composition of the fine and coarse particles were analyzed. The imaging was carried out by SEM (Nova NanoSEM 230, FEI, USA). The same SEM was also used for the EDX measurements performed. The particles collected on fiber filters for SEM imaging were further on coated with 4 nm Pt layer to improve conductivity of the samples. The morphological and chemical composition suggested that the most abundant particles were carbonaceous soot but also microbes and natural and anthropogenic inorganic mineral materials. The chemical characterization was performed on a semi-quantitative level. The contents of the carbon were up to 70% or higher. In the samples were dominating next others elements: O, Mo, Si, Fe, Ca, Al, K, Mg

Cu2Se and Cu Nanocrystals as Local Sources of Copper in Thermally Activated in Situ Cation Exchange

Among the different synthesis approaches to colloidal nanocrystals, a recently developed toolkit is represented by cation exchange reactions, where the use of template nanocrystals gives access to materials that would be hardly attainable via direct synthesis. Besides, postsynthetic treatments, such as thermally activated solid-state reactions, represent a further flourishing route to promote finely controlled cation exchange. Here, we report that, upon in situ heating in a transmission electron microscope, Cu2Se or Cu nanocrystals deposited on an amorphous solid substrate undergo partial loss of Cu atoms, which are then engaged in local cation exchange reactions with Cu “acceptor” phases represented by rod- and wire-shaped CdSe nanocrystals. This thermal treatment slowly transforms the initial CdSe nanocrystals into Cu2−xSe nanocrystals, through the complete sublimation of Cd and the partial sublimation of Se atoms. Both Cu “donor” and “acceptor” particles were not always in direct contact with each other; hence, the gradual transfer of Cu species from Cu2Se or metallic Cu to CdSe nanocrystals was mediated by the substrate and depended on the distance between the donor and acceptor nanostructures. Differently from what happens in the comparably faster cation exchange reactions performed in liquid solution, this study shows that slow cation exchange reactions can be performed at the solid state and helps to shed light on the intermediate steps involved in such reactions

Farmaceuti i COVID-19 u Srbiji: promocija vakcinacije u javnim apotekama u Republici Srbiji

Uvod i cilj. Pandemija COVID-19 potvrdila je važnost uloge farmaceuta u očuvanju i unap- ređenju javnog zdravlja. Cilj rada je da prikaže aktivnosti farmaceutskih udruženja u Republici Srbiji u promociji vakcinacije. Metode. Savez farmaceutskih udruženja Srbije (SFUS), Udruženje farmaceuta Beograd, Udruženje farmaceuta Vojvodine, Udruženje farmaceuta Zapadne Srbije 1836, Udruženje far- maceuta Nišavsko-pirotskog regiona, Savez privatnih apotekara Srbije i Inicijativa za farma- ciju organizovali su Webinar posvećen ulozi farmaceuta u imunizaciji. Navedena udruženja inicirala su izradu informativne brošure „Covid-19 vakcine u Srbiji”. Brošuru je izradila Katedra za mikrobiologiju i imunologiju Farmaceutskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu (FFUB) u saradnji sa Agencijom za lekove i medicinska sredstva Srbije. Dizajn brošure uradila je Nacio- nalna Asocijacija Studenata Farmacije – Srbija. Štampanje brošure omogućilo je Ministarstvo zdravlja Republike Srbije u okviru projekta „Hitan odgovor Republike Srbije na COVID-19“. Rezultati. Webinaru održanom 13.02.2021. prisustvovalo je 594 farmaceuta. Brošura je sadržala najznačajnije podatke o COVID-19 vakcinama u Srbiji, ali i odgovore na neka najče- šće postavljana pitanja od strane građana. Napisana je na osnovu najrelevantnijih dostupnih naučnih podataka, a sadržaj je ažuriran tri puta. Brošura je štampana u 150000 besplatnih primeraka i distribuirana u javne apoteke. Apoteke su bile mesto dalje distribucije brošura za- interesovanim pacijentima. Brošura je takođe bila dostupna u e-formatu na sajtu FFUB, SFUS, i na sajtovima brojnih ustanova javnog zdravlja Srbije., a izazvala je i veliko interesovanje u medijima i na društvenim mrežama. Zaključak. Organizacijom webinara, učešćem u izradi i distribuciji brošure o vakcinama, farmaceuti su aktivno učestvovali u informisanju stanovništva, promociji vakcinacije i tako potvrdili značaj farmaceutske zdravstvene zaštite u uslovima pandemije

Mass distributions and morphological and chemical characterization of urban aerosols in the continental Balkan area (Belgrade)

This work presents characteristics of atmospheric aerosols of urban central Balkans area, using a size-segregated aerosol sampling method, calculation of mass distributions, SEM/EDX characterization, and ICP/MS analysis. Three types of mass distributions were observed: distribution with a pronounced domination of coarse mode, bimodal distribution, and distribution with minimum at 1 μm describing the urban aerosol. SEM/EDX analyses have shown morphological difference and variation in the content of elements in samples. EDX spectra demonstrate that particles generally contain the following elements: Al, Ca, K, Fe, Mg, Ni, K, Si, S. Additionally, the presence of As, Br, Sn, and Zn found in air masses from southeast segment points out the anthropogenic activities most probably from mining activities in southeastern part of Serbia. The ratio Al/Si equivalent to the ratio of desert dust was associated with air masses coming from southeastern and southwestern segments, pointing to influences from North Africa and Middle East desert areas whereas the Al/Si ratio in other samples is significantly lower. In several samples, we found high values of aluminum in the nucleation mode. Samples with low share of crustal elements in the coarse mode are collected when Mediterranean air masses prevailed, while high share in the coarse mode was associated with continental air masses that could be one of the approaches for identification of the aerosol origin. Graphical abstract ᅟ.This work presents characteristics of atmospheric aerosols of urban central Balkans area, using a size-segregated aerosol sampling method, calculation of mass distributions, SEM/EDX characterization, and ICP/MS analysis. Three types of mass distributions were observed: distribution with a pronounced domination of coarse mode, bimodal distribution, and distribution with minimum at 1 mu m describing the urban aerosol. SEM/EDX analyses have shown morphological difference and variation in the content of elements in samples. EDX spectra demonstrate that particles generally contain the following elements: Al, Ca, K, Fe, Mg, Ni, K, Si, S. Additionally, the presence of As, Br, Sn, and Zn found in air masses from southeast segment points out the anthropogenic activities most probably from mining activities in southeastern part of Serbia. The ratio Al/Si equivalent to the ratio of desert dust was associated with air masses coming from southeastern and southwestern segments, pointing to influences from North Africa and Middle East desert areas whereas the Al/Si ratio in other samples is significantly lower. In several samples, we found high values of aluminum in the nucleation mode. Samples with low share of crustal elements in the coarse mode are collected when Mediterranean air masses prevailed, while high share in the coarse mode was associated with continental air masses that could be one of the approaches for identification of the aerosol origin

Još o toksičnosti kadmija - s posebnim osvrtom na nastanak oksidacijskoga stresa i na interakcije s cinkom i magnezijem

Discovered in late 1817, cadmium is currently one of the most important occupational and environmental pollutants. It is associated with renal, neurological, skeletal and other toxic effects, including reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. There is still much to find out about its mechanisms of action, biomarkers of critical effects, and ways to reduce health risks. At present, there is no clinically efficient agent to treat cadmium poisoning due to predominantly intracellular location of cadmium ions. This article gives a brief review of cadmium-induced oxidative stress and its interactions with essential elements zinc and magnesium as relevant mechanisms of cadmium toxicity. It draws on available literature data and our own results, which indicate that dietary supplementation of either essential element has beneficial effect under condition of cadmium exposure. We have also tackled the reasons why magnesium addition prevails over zinc and discussed the protective role of magnesium during cadmium exposure. These findings could help to solve the problem of prophylaxis and therapy of increased cadmium body burden.Iako je otkriven tek 1817. godine, kadmij je trenutačno jedan od najvažnijih onečišćivača životne i radne sredine. Štetno djeluje na bubrege, živčani sustav, kosti, reproduktivni sistem, a ima i genotoksične i karcinogene efekte. Nužna su dalja istraživanja vezana za mehanizme njegove toksičnosti, biomarkere efekata, kao i načine smanjenja rizika za zdravlje. Osim toga, do danas nije otkriven agens efikasan u terapiji trovanja kadmijem s obzirom na to da je kadmij intracelularni kation. U ovom radu dan je sažet pregled važnih mehanizama toksičnosti kadmija, kao što su nastanak oksidativnog stresa i interakcije s esencijalnim elementima, cinkom i magnezijem, na osnovi dostupnih literaturnih podataka, kao i naših ispitivanja koja upućuju na to da povećani unos navedenih esencijalnih elemenata pokazuje pozitivne efekte pri ekspoziciji kadmiju. Obrazložena je prednost suplementacije magnezijem pred suplementacijom cinkom i razmatrana preventivna uloga magnezija pri intoksikaciji kadmijem. Ovi su rezultati doprinos rješavanju problema profi lakse i terapije trovanja kadmijem