Kasnoantička konjanička oprema

Ovaj rad prikazuje osnovne tipove oružja i defanzivne opreme korištene od strane konjanika u rimskoj službi u kasnoj antici te razloge za njihovu uporabu. Uz to, donosi i kratak pregled opreme konja čiji su dijelovi često razvijani paralelno uz opremu njihovih jahača.Promatrajući tehnike ratovanja opisane posredno ili neposredno u izvorima i na spomenicima moguće je pretpostaviti karakteristike oružja koje bi najviše odgovarale konjaniku u specifičnoj zadaći i prepoznavati ih u nađenom materijalu.This work is a review of the basic types of arms and defensive equipment of the Roman cavalry of Late Antiquityand it's usage. It also brings a short view of the horse equipment, which was mostly developed alongside cavalryman's. By taking a look at the ways cavalry was described in historical sources, it is possible to assume the most suitable characteristics of a piece of equipment designed for a certain task

Epigraphic evidence of ancient water supply in the Croatian Adriatic

Briga o vodi jedno je od najvažnijih pitanja opskrbe svake zajednice. Tome svjedoče i brojni arheološki nalazi antičkih vodovoda, bunara, cisterni i fontana. Ovi primjeri vodoopskrbne infrastrukture revolucionarizirani su upravo u rimsko vrijeme, koje je na postojeća saznanja o upravljanju vodama dodalo niz tehnologija. Međutim, arheološki nalazi često nam ne govore sve što bismo htjeli saznati o ovom vrlo važnom gospodarskom polju. Kako bismo pokušali razmotriti i neke druge aspekte radova na antičkoj vodoopskrbi, specifično na prostoru hrvatskog Jadrana, cilj je ovoga rada sakupiti sačuvana antička epigrafska svjedočanstva o održavanju vodoopskrbne infrastrukture na tom području i staviti ih u kontekst već poznatih saznanja.Caring for water is one of the most important aspects of supply for all communities. This is corroborated by numerous archaeological finds of ancient water lines, draw-wells, cisterns and fountains. Such examples of water supply infrastructure were revolutionised precisely in Roman times, when a number of technologies were added to the existing knowledge of water management. However, archaeological finds often do not tell us everything we would like to find out about this very important economic field. In an attempt to consider some further aspects of ancient water supply works, specifically in the Croatian Adriatic, the aim of this paper is to collect the preserved ancient epigraphic evidence on water supply infrastructure maintenance in this area and put them in the context of already known information

Epigraphic evidence of ancient water supply in the Croatian Adriatic

Briga o vodi jedno je od najvažnijih pitanja opskrbe svake zajednice. Tome svjedoče i brojni arheološki nalazi antičkih vodovoda, bunara, cisterni i fontana. Ovi primjeri vodoopskrbne infrastrukture revolucionarizirani su upravo u rimsko vrijeme, koje je na postojeća saznanja o upravljanju vodama dodalo niz tehnologija. Međutim, arheološki nalazi često nam ne govore sve što bismo htjeli saznati o ovom vrlo važnom gospodarskom polju. Kako bismo pokušali razmotriti i neke druge aspekte radova na antičkoj vodoopskrbi, specifično na prostoru hrvatskog Jadrana, cilj je ovoga rada sakupiti sačuvana antička epigrafska svjedočanstva o održavanju vodoopskrbne infrastrukture na tom području i staviti ih u kontekst već poznatih saznanja.Caring for water is one of the most important aspects of supply for all communities. This is corroborated by numerous archaeological finds of ancient water lines, draw-wells, cisterns and fountains. Such examples of water supply infrastructure were revolutionised precisely in Roman times, when a number of technologies were added to the existing knowledge of water management. However, archaeological finds often do not tell us everything we would like to find out about this very important economic field. In an attempt to consider some further aspects of ancient water supply works, specifically in the Croatian Adriatic, the aim of this paper is to collect the preserved ancient epigraphic evidence on water supply infrastructure maintenance in this area and put them in the context of already known information

A change of perspective on early Roman migrations in the Mediterranean. The case of the eastern Adriatic

Migracije ljudi neizostavan su dio ljudske povijesti. One mogu biti i uzrok i posljedica, ali isto tako i katalizator društvenih promjena na nekome području. Migracije u doba rimskih osvajanja donedavno su u znanstvenoj raspravi bile slabo zastupljene u odnosu na izvještaje i komentare ratova i ostalih političkih zbivanja i aktera. Isto vrijedi i za sukobe na istočnoj jadranskoj obali. Zbog toga je cilj ovoga rada istražiti tragove i prirodu migracija koje su se događale uslijed ilirskih ratova i postupnoga nametanja Rima kao vladara ovog područja od 3. st. pr. Kr. pa do sredine 1. st. pr. Kr.Human migrations are an integral part of human history. They can be both a cause and a consequence, but also a catalyst for social change in an area. Until recently, migrations during the Roman conquests were poorly represented in the scientific discussion in relation to reports and comments on wars and other political events and figures. The same applies to conflicts on the eastern Adriatic coast. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore the traces and nature of migrations that occurred as a result of the Illyrian wars and the gradual imposition of Rome as the ruler of this area from the 3rd cent. BC until the middle of the 1st cent. BC

Pax Romana between Burnum and Tilurium. Landscape of conflicts?

Na području između Burna i Tilurija odvijala se od 6. do 9. godine jedna od posljednjih faza delmatsko-panonskog ustanka. Taj ustanak, poznat pod imenom Bellum Batonianum, dobio je ime po Batonima, vođama pobunjenika. O kakvom se sukobu radilo i koliko je on uzdrmao rimsku državu najbolje svjedoče Svetonijeve riječi u Tiberijevoj biografiji (Suet. Tib. 16.1): ...gravissimum omnium externorum bellorum post Punica. Tek je nakon savladavanja ustanika u rimskoj provinciji Dalmaciji moglo započeti razdoblje istinskoga mira (Pax Romana) koji je, osim toga, bio blagodatan i za Italiju kojoj je ova čuvala priobalne prilaze. Mirnodopsku blagodat na prostoru između Burna i Tilurija Rimljani su postigli strateškim razmještanjem legionarskih i pomoćnih vojnih jedinica. Ovaj rad želi istražiti da li u tome prostornom razmještaju trupa ima sustava i da li je u tome sustavu tijekom 1. stoljeća od značenja bio i raspored pomoćnih trupa.One of the last stages of the Delmataean-Pannonian rebellion took place in the area between Burnum and Tilurium between 6 and 9 AD. This revolt is known as the Bellum Batonianum, which was named after the two leaders of the rebellion. Suetonius’ words in Tiberius’s biography (Suet. Tib. 16.1) ...gravissimum omnium externorum bellorum post Punica, best attest to the nature of the conflict and how much it affected the Roman state. In the Roman province of Dalmatia, true peace, the so-called Pax Romana, could have begun only after overpowering the rebels. This peace was also very beneficial to Italy, which was secured by Dalmatian coastal routes. The benefit of peace was achieved by the Romans through the strategic deployment of legionary and auxiliary military units in the area between Burnum and Tilurium. This paper seeks to explore whether the spatial arrangement of units had a certain system and whether the spatial arrangement of auxiliary units during the 1st century had any significance in that system

Proceedings from the 8th and 9th Scientific Conference Methodology and Archaeometry

Methodology and Archaeometry (MetArh) is an annual scientific conference organized since 2013 by the Department of Archaeology of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb, and the Croatian Archaeological Society.The goal of the conference is to entice interdisciplinarity, critical thinking, new insights and approaches as well as new theoretical frameworks in contemporary archaeological science. It offers a wider perspective in observing methodology and methodological practices, also challenging traditional approaches in archaeological research, and following the creative adaptation of methods from other disciplines into archaeology. Also, it enables scholars to present their work, engage in discussion and motivate young scholars and archaeology students to pursue contemporary topics and present their research.This edition of the conference Proceedings contains twelve papers from the 8th and 9th MetArh conference which was held at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb. The 8th MetArh conference was held from 3rd – 4th of December 2020, and the 9th from 2nd – 3rd of December 2021 (https://metarh.ffzg.unizg.hr/).Due to COVID-19, both conferences were held on the online platform Hopin.to. It was very challenging to organize and realize the conference in a virtual format but, most importantly, it produced high-quality works some of which are published in this publication. Papers in this volume are focused on different aspects of archaeological methodology and archaeometry, including case studies from Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and Ukraine.Methodology and Archaeometry (MetArh) is an annual scientific conference organized since 2013 by the Department of Archaeology of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb, and the Croatian Archaeological Society.The goal of the conference is to entice interdisciplinarity, critical thinking, new insights and approaches as well as new theoretical frameworks in contemporary archaeological science. It offers a wider perspective in observing methodology and methodological practices, also challenging traditional approaches in archaeological research, and following the creative adaptation of methods from other disciplines into archaeology. Also, it enables scholars to present their work, engage in discussion and motivate young scholars and archaeology students to pursue contemporary topics and present their research.This edition of the conference Proceedings contains twelve papers from the 8th and 9th MetArh conference which was held at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb. The 8th MetArh conference was held from 3rd – 4th of December 2020, and the 9th from 2nd – 3rd of December 2021 (https://metarh.ffzg.unizg.hr/).Due to COVID-19, both conferences were held on the online platform Hopin.to. It was very challenging to organize and realize the conference in a virtual format but, most importantly, it produced high-quality works some of which are published in this publication. Papers in this volume are focused on different aspects of archaeological methodology and archaeometry, including case studies from Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and Ukraine

Stable population structure in Europe since the Iron Age, despite high mobility

Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed dramatically in the prehistoric period (14,000–3000 years before present, YBP), reflecting the widespread introduction of Neolithic farmer and Bronze Age Steppe ancestries. However, little is known about how population structure changed from the historical period onward (3000 YBP - present). To address this, we collected whole genomes from 204 individuals from Europe and the Mediterranean, many of which are the first historical period genomes from their region (e.g. Armenia and France). We found that most regions show remarkable inter-individual heterogeneity. At least 7% of historical individuals carry ancestry uncommon in the region where they were sampled, some indicating cross-Mediterranean contacts. Despite this high level of mobility, overall population structure across western Eurasia is relatively stable through the historical period up to the present, mirroring geography. We show that, under standard population genetics models with local panmixia, the observed level of dispersal would lead to a collapse of population structure. Persistent population structure thus suggests a lower effective migration rate than indicated by the observed dispersal. We hypothesize that this phenomenon can be explained by extensive transient dispersal arising from drastically improved transportation networks and the Roman Empire’s mobilization of people for trade, labor, and military. This work highlights the utility of ancient DNA in elucidating finer scale human population dynamics in recent history

Water supply of the Croatian Adriatic in Roman times

Cilj je ovoga rada bolje razumijevanje načina opskrbe vodom u rimsko vrijeme na hrvatskomu Jadranu, koji u grubim okvirima obuhvaća današnju Istru, Kvarner i Dalmaciju, s otocima. Iako je dostatna opskrba vodom i u rimsko doba predstavljala osnovu za kvalitetan urbani život, što se odavna podrazumijeva, temi načina opskrbe lokaliteta na ovomu prostoru rijetko se posvećuje dovoljna pažnja. Stoga smo pri istraživanju ove teme prikupili sve nama dostupne informacije o antičkoj vodoopskrbnoj infrastrukturi na tomu prostoru. To uključuje i ispitivanje načina na koji su ti objekti mogli biti građeni i s kojom svrhom. Pri gradnji te infrastrukture i razvoju vodoopskrbnih sustava na hrvatskomu Jadranu, antički su graditelji nailazili na različite kulturne i geografske izazove kojima su se morali prilagoditi kako bi osigurali nesmetan život rimskih kolonizatora i stanovništva. Time smo stekli i bolju sliku o načinima korištenja objekata kao što su brane, cisterne i vodovodi u to vrijeme. Sintezom dostupnih arheoloških nalaza i drugih podataka te njihovom analizom stvorena je jasnija i osvježena slika toga aspekta rimskoga urbanog i ruralnog života na ovomu strateškom i vrlo urbaniziranom području rimske države.This dissertation aims to offer a better understanding of the way Croatian Adriatic, which roughly includes today's Istria, Kvarner, and Dalmatia, including islands, was supplied with water in Roman times. The term "Croatian Adriatic", as defined by J. Riđanović and Z. Bičanić, implies: "...the area of the coastal sea from the middle of the Piran Bay (the mouth of the Dragonja River) in the northwest to Cape Oštri, more precisely in the middle of the outer part of the Boka Kotorska Bay in the southeast, with a 21.2 km long break near Neum. The Croatian Adriatic, in addition to the sea, also includes the areas of municipalities and cities, which, according to the new territorial structure, as units of local administration and self-government, go directly to the Adriatic Sea". An insight into the topic begins with an overview of the geographical features of this area, which is largely characterized by karst relief, rare surface water, and uneven amounts of precipitation. Although sufficient water supply was the basis for quality urban life even in Roman times, which has long been understood, the topic of how sites were supplied with water in the area of the Croatian Adriatic is rarely given enough attention. The scholarly literature that provides an overview of technologies and water supply infrastructure in Roman times is respectable, but not vast. The first investigations of individual water supply systems and parts of infrastructure on the Croatian Adriatic began at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, and G. Alačević, L. Jelić, F. Bulić, and A. Gnirs were among the first to deal with them. Professional study of the remains of ancient water supply systems and their parts in the area of the Croatian Adriatic began roughly at the same time as elsewhere in Europe but continued with uneven intensity. In this paper, we provide a brief overview of relevant works on water supply systems from Istria in the north to Cavtat in the south. Therefore, when researching this topic, we collected all the information available to us about the ancient water supply infrastructure. This includes examining how these objects could have been built and for what purpose. When planning and developing water supply systems on the Croatian Adriatic, the ancient engineers encountered various cultural and geographical challenges to which they had to adapt in order to ensure a safer life for Roman colonizers and the population. Help in understanding the technology and the way water supply functioned is also provided by ancient sources. Although several ancient writers touch on the topic of water in their works, which is natural considering its inevitability when thinking about human life and its activities, among the literary sources known to us today only two stand out that paid more attention to water and water supply. For this reason, this dissertation offers insight into the problems, concepts, and basic terms of water supply. When looking at the problem of searching for surface springs, which from the earliest communities were the most important supply points, we rely primarily on historical sources, especially Vitruvius. While considering water quality, we also consider ways of using undrinkable or healing waters, most of which could have been used for various purposes. The dissertation pays closer attention to the issue of technology and considers the ancient technologies necessary for exploiting underground water, rainfall, and spring. Dams were used to protect threatened areas from the destructive effects of surface water, but they also could have ensured a better supply of water in drier periods. We deal with the topic of ancient dams with an overview of general types of dams, which are divided according to the way they resisted the pressure of water. Underground water was mostly accessed by a well or a qanat. Wells are shafts used to dig into the aquifer, and qanats are a type of gravity channel aqueduct that is constructed as an underground tunnel with several access shafts. Rainfall was collected and stored in cisterns. Ancient cisterns were dug into the rock or built of stone or brick and coated from the inside with waterproof plaster (opus signinum), which was made with a mixture of plaster with pieces of ceramic or ceramic powder. In this paper, we have divided aqueducts according to the way they transport water - into gravity channel aqueducts and pressurized aqueducts. The gravity channel aqueducts use only gravity for the transfer of water. On the other hand, pressurized aqueducts in antiquity were usually inverted siphons, which work on the principle of communicating vessels. To the overview of the technology, the topic of mechanisms for raising water is added, which includes various machines and techniques. They form a very important element of some water supply systems, enabling the raising of larger quantities of water with less time or energy consumption, which can facilitate daily supply for the population, as well as simplify the construction of the rest of the infrastructure. Water supply systems, whether for private or public purposes, consisted of a combination of the solutions listed here, which we consider in more detail in the paper. To offer a broader context to the material present in the field, we have offered a summary of the social and legal context that has, equally, shaped the supply. Based on the available information, we have presented the Roman relationship to water and the position of water in Roman law. For this reason, the paper touches on the Roman legal system and how Roman society managed water resources. We concluded that for the Romans, water was a property that could be both privately and publicly owned. This had a special effect on the dynamics of supply. Thus, in its own way, the ownership of springs dictated the need for infrastructure and different solutions in construction. The owner of the land where the spring was located had private ownership of the water source, while water was considered public property if it sprung or flowed on public land. This paper also touches on the question of the legal status of the city's water supply infrastructure, the ways they were financed, and ways of managing them. The city's water supply infrastructure, i.e. the facilities that made it up, also was considered public property, but was not open to everyone and was managed by city magistrates and public authorities. After establishing a basis for our research in this way, based on the already mentioned aspects of water supply - geographical, social, legal, religious, and technological - this dissertation follows an overview of the preserved remains of the ancient water supply infrastructure, as well as relevant data for this topic, derived from previous archaeological research of water supply infrastructure on the Croatian Adriatic. This part of the research is divided into 4 different subparts: a review of the water supply of cities of the Croatian Adriatic, a review of the water supply of rural areas of the Croatian Adriatic, a review of the water supply of the Roman military camps of the Croatian Adriatic and, finally, a review of the issue of the number of ancient cisterns found in the observed area. When reviewing the water supply of the ancient cities of the Croatian Adriatic, we studied the known finds from the area of ancient Poreč, Pula, Omišalj, Rab, Zadar, Caska, Novalja, Nin, Solin, Diocletian's Palace, and Cavtat. When considering rural water supply, we paid attention to the similarities and differences in needs and solutions between urban and rural water supply, and we took the water supply of the famous ancient villa in Verige bay as an example. When reviewing the water supply of the Roman military camps, we concentrated on the review and analysis of finds related to the legionary camps Burnum and Tilurium. We approached the issue of the number of cisterns in the observed area through an overview of known sites with documented cisterns and an analysis of the various uses cisterns could have had and their importance for water supply. According to the available material and knowledge, we believe that cisterns should be distinguished as, primarily, facilities for the storage or distribution of water. In conclusion, the synthesis of available archaeological finds and other data and their analysis created a clearer and refreshed picture of water supply in Roman urban and rural life in this strategic and highly urbanized area of the Roman state

Water supply of the Croatian Adriatic in Roman times

Cilj je ovoga rada bolje razumijevanje načina opskrbe vodom u rimsko vrijeme na hrvatskomu Jadranu, koji u grubim okvirima obuhvaća današnju Istru, Kvarner i Dalmaciju, s otocima. Iako je dostatna opskrba vodom i u rimsko doba predstavljala osnovu za kvalitetan urbani život, što se odavna podrazumijeva, temi načina opskrbe lokaliteta na ovomu prostoru rijetko se posvećuje dovoljna pažnja. Stoga smo pri istraživanju ove teme prikupili sve nama dostupne informacije o antičkoj vodoopskrbnoj infrastrukturi na tomu prostoru. To uključuje i ispitivanje načina na koji su ti objekti mogli biti građeni i s kojom svrhom. Pri gradnji te infrastrukture i razvoju vodoopskrbnih sustava na hrvatskomu Jadranu, antički su graditelji nailazili na različite kulturne i geografske izazove kojima su se morali prilagoditi kako bi osigurali nesmetan život rimskih kolonizatora i stanovništva. Time smo stekli i bolju sliku o načinima korištenja objekata kao što su brane, cisterne i vodovodi u to vrijeme. Sintezom dostupnih arheoloških nalaza i drugih podataka te njihovom analizom stvorena je jasnija i osvježena slika toga aspekta rimskoga urbanog i ruralnog života na ovomu strateškom i vrlo urbaniziranom području rimske države.This dissertation aims to offer a better understanding of the way Croatian Adriatic, which roughly includes today's Istria, Kvarner, and Dalmatia, including islands, was supplied with water in Roman times. The term "Croatian Adriatic", as defined by J. Riđanović and Z. Bičanić, implies: "...the area of the coastal sea from the middle of the Piran Bay (the mouth of the Dragonja River) in the northwest to Cape Oštri, more precisely in the middle of the outer part of the Boka Kotorska Bay in the southeast, with a 21.2 km long break near Neum. The Croatian Adriatic, in addition to the sea, also includes the areas of municipalities and cities, which, according to the new territorial structure, as units of local administration and self-government, go directly to the Adriatic Sea". An insight into the topic begins with an overview of the geographical features of this area, which is largely characterized by karst relief, rare surface water, and uneven amounts of precipitation. Although sufficient water supply was the basis for quality urban life even in Roman times, which has long been understood, the topic of how sites were supplied with water in the area of the Croatian Adriatic is rarely given enough attention. The scholarly literature that provides an overview of technologies and water supply infrastructure in Roman times is respectable, but not vast. The first investigations of individual water supply systems and parts of infrastructure on the Croatian Adriatic began at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, and G. Alačević, L. Jelić, F. Bulić, and A. Gnirs were among the first to deal with them. Professional study of the remains of ancient water supply systems and their parts in the area of the Croatian Adriatic began roughly at the same time as elsewhere in Europe but continued with uneven intensity. In this paper, we provide a brief overview of relevant works on water supply systems from Istria in the north to Cavtat in the south. Therefore, when researching this topic, we collected all the information available to us about the ancient water supply infrastructure. This includes examining how these objects could have been built and for what purpose. When planning and developing water supply systems on the Croatian Adriatic, the ancient engineers encountered various cultural and geographical challenges to which they had to adapt in order to ensure a safer life for Roman colonizers and the population. Help in understanding the technology and the way water supply functioned is also provided by ancient sources. Although several ancient writers touch on the topic of water in their works, which is natural considering its inevitability when thinking about human life and its activities, among the literary sources known to us today only two stand out that paid more attention to water and water supply. For this reason, this dissertation offers insight into the problems, concepts, and basic terms of water supply. When looking at the problem of searching for surface springs, which from the earliest communities were the most important supply points, we rely primarily on historical sources, especially Vitruvius. While considering water quality, we also consider ways of using undrinkable or healing waters, most of which could have been used for various purposes. The dissertation pays closer attention to the issue of technology and considers the ancient technologies necessary for exploiting underground water, rainfall, and spring. Dams were used to protect threatened areas from the destructive effects of surface water, but they also could have ensured a better supply of water in drier periods. We deal with the topic of ancient dams with an overview of general types of dams, which are divided according to the way they resisted the pressure of water. Underground water was mostly accessed by a well or a qanat. Wells are shafts used to dig into the aquifer, and qanats are a type of gravity channel aqueduct that is constructed as an underground tunnel with several access shafts. Rainfall was collected and stored in cisterns. Ancient cisterns were dug into the rock or built of stone or brick and coated from the inside with waterproof plaster (opus signinum), which was made with a mixture of plaster with pieces of ceramic or ceramic powder. In this paper, we have divided aqueducts according to the way they transport water - into gravity channel aqueducts and pressurized aqueducts. The gravity channel aqueducts use only gravity for the transfer of water. On the other hand, pressurized aqueducts in antiquity were usually inverted siphons, which work on the principle of communicating vessels. To the overview of the technology, the topic of mechanisms for raising water is added, which includes various machines and techniques. They form a very important element of some water supply systems, enabling the raising of larger quantities of water with less time or energy consumption, which can facilitate daily supply for the population, as well as simplify the construction of the rest of the infrastructure. Water supply systems, whether for private or public purposes, consisted of a combination of the solutions listed here, which we consider in more detail in the paper. To offer a broader context to the material present in the field, we have offered a summary of the social and legal context that has, equally, shaped the supply. Based on the available information, we have presented the Roman relationship to water and the position of water in Roman law. For this reason, the paper touches on the Roman legal system and how Roman society managed water resources. We concluded that for the Romans, water was a property that could be both privately and publicly owned. This had a special effect on the dynamics of supply. Thus, in its own way, the ownership of springs dictated the need for infrastructure and different solutions in construction. The owner of the land where the spring was located had private ownership of the water source, while water was considered public property if it sprung or flowed on public land. This paper also touches on the question of the legal status of the city's water supply infrastructure, the ways they were financed, and ways of managing them. The city's water supply infrastructure, i.e. the facilities that made it up, also was considered public property, but was not open to everyone and was managed by city magistrates and public authorities. After establishing a basis for our research in this way, based on the already mentioned aspects of water supply - geographical, social, legal, religious, and technological - this dissertation follows an overview of the preserved remains of the ancient water supply infrastructure, as well as relevant data for this topic, derived from previous archaeological research of water supply infrastructure on the Croatian Adriatic. This part of the research is divided into 4 different subparts: a review of the water supply of cities of the Croatian Adriatic, a review of the water supply of rural areas of the Croatian Adriatic, a review of the water supply of the Roman military camps of the Croatian Adriatic and, finally, a review of the issue of the number of ancient cisterns found in the observed area. When reviewing the water supply of the ancient cities of the Croatian Adriatic, we studied the known finds from the area of ancient Poreč, Pula, Omišalj, Rab, Zadar, Caska, Novalja, Nin, Solin, Diocletian's Palace, and Cavtat. When considering rural water supply, we paid attention to the similarities and differences in needs and solutions between urban and rural water supply, and we took the water supply of the famous ancient villa in Verige bay as an example. When reviewing the water supply of the Roman military camps, we concentrated on the review and analysis of finds related to the legionary camps Burnum and Tilurium. We approached the issue of the number of cisterns in the observed area through an overview of known sites with documented cisterns and an analysis of the various uses cisterns could have had and their importance for water supply. According to the available material and knowledge, we believe that cisterns should be distinguished as, primarily, facilities for the storage or distribution of water. In conclusion, the synthesis of available archaeological finds and other data and their analysis created a clearer and refreshed picture of water supply in Roman urban and rural life in this strategic and highly urbanized area of the Roman state

Water supply of the Croatian Adriatic in Roman times

Cilj je ovoga rada bolje razumijevanje načina opskrbe vodom u rimsko vrijeme na hrvatskomu Jadranu, koji u grubim okvirima obuhvaća današnju Istru, Kvarner i Dalmaciju, s otocima. Iako je dostatna opskrba vodom i u rimsko doba predstavljala osnovu za kvalitetan urbani život, što se odavna podrazumijeva, temi načina opskrbe lokaliteta na ovomu prostoru rijetko se posvećuje dovoljna pažnja. Stoga smo pri istraživanju ove teme prikupili sve nama dostupne informacije o antičkoj vodoopskrbnoj infrastrukturi na tomu prostoru. To uključuje i ispitivanje načina na koji su ti objekti mogli biti građeni i s kojom svrhom. Pri gradnji te infrastrukture i razvoju vodoopskrbnih sustava na hrvatskomu Jadranu, antički su graditelji nailazili na različite kulturne i geografske izazove kojima su se morali prilagoditi kako bi osigurali nesmetan život rimskih kolonizatora i stanovništva. Time smo stekli i bolju sliku o načinima korištenja objekata kao što su brane, cisterne i vodovodi u to vrijeme. Sintezom dostupnih arheoloških nalaza i drugih podataka te njihovom analizom stvorena je jasnija i osvježena slika toga aspekta rimskoga urbanog i ruralnog života na ovomu strateškom i vrlo urbaniziranom području rimske države.This dissertation aims to offer a better understanding of the way Croatian Adriatic, which roughly includes today's Istria, Kvarner, and Dalmatia, including islands, was supplied with water in Roman times. The term "Croatian Adriatic", as defined by J. Riđanović and Z. Bičanić, implies: "...the area of the coastal sea from the middle of the Piran Bay (the mouth of the Dragonja River) in the northwest to Cape Oštri, more precisely in the middle of the outer part of the Boka Kotorska Bay in the southeast, with a 21.2 km long break near Neum. The Croatian Adriatic, in addition to the sea, also includes the areas of municipalities and cities, which, according to the new territorial structure, as units of local administration and self-government, go directly to the Adriatic Sea". An insight into the topic begins with an overview of the geographical features of this area, which is largely characterized by karst relief, rare surface water, and uneven amounts of precipitation. Although sufficient water supply was the basis for quality urban life even in Roman times, which has long been understood, the topic of how sites were supplied with water in the area of the Croatian Adriatic is rarely given enough attention. The scholarly literature that provides an overview of technologies and water supply infrastructure in Roman times is respectable, but not vast. The first investigations of individual water supply systems and parts of infrastructure on the Croatian Adriatic began at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, and G. Alačević, L. Jelić, F. Bulić, and A. Gnirs were among the first to deal with them. Professional study of the remains of ancient water supply systems and their parts in the area of the Croatian Adriatic began roughly at the same time as elsewhere in Europe but continued with uneven intensity. In this paper, we provide a brief overview of relevant works on water supply systems from Istria in the north to Cavtat in the south. Therefore, when researching this topic, we collected all the information available to us about the ancient water supply infrastructure. This includes examining how these objects could have been built and for what purpose. When planning and developing water supply systems on the Croatian Adriatic, the ancient engineers encountered various cultural and geographical challenges to which they had to adapt in order to ensure a safer life for Roman colonizers and the population. Help in understanding the technology and the way water supply functioned is also provided by ancient sources. Although several ancient writers touch on the topic of water in their works, which is natural considering its inevitability when thinking about human life and its activities, among the literary sources known to us today only two stand out that paid more attention to water and water supply. For this reason, this dissertation offers insight into the problems, concepts, and basic terms of water supply. When looking at the problem of searching for surface springs, which from the earliest communities were the most important supply points, we rely primarily on historical sources, especially Vitruvius. While considering water quality, we also consider ways of using undrinkable or healing waters, most of which could have been used for various purposes. The dissertation pays closer attention to the issue of technology and considers the ancient technologies necessary for exploiting underground water, rainfall, and spring. Dams were used to protect threatened areas from the destructive effects of surface water, but they also could have ensured a better supply of water in drier periods. We deal with the topic of ancient dams with an overview of general types of dams, which are divided according to the way they resisted the pressure of water. Underground water was mostly accessed by a well or a qanat. Wells are shafts used to dig into the aquifer, and qanats are a type of gravity channel aqueduct that is constructed as an underground tunnel with several access shafts. Rainfall was collected and stored in cisterns. Ancient cisterns were dug into the rock or built of stone or brick and coated from the inside with waterproof plaster (opus signinum), which was made with a mixture of plaster with pieces of ceramic or ceramic powder. In this paper, we have divided aqueducts according to the way they transport water - into gravity channel aqueducts and pressurized aqueducts. The gravity channel aqueducts use only gravity for the transfer of water. On the other hand, pressurized aqueducts in antiquity were usually inverted siphons, which work on the principle of communicating vessels. To the overview of the technology, the topic of mechanisms for raising water is added, which includes various machines and techniques. They form a very important element of some water supply systems, enabling the raising of larger quantities of water with less time or energy consumption, which can facilitate daily supply for the population, as well as simplify the construction of the rest of the infrastructure. Water supply systems, whether for private or public purposes, consisted of a combination of the solutions listed here, which we consider in more detail in the paper. To offer a broader context to the material present in the field, we have offered a summary of the social and legal context that has, equally, shaped the supply. Based on the available information, we have presented the Roman relationship to water and the position of water in Roman law. For this reason, the paper touches on the Roman legal system and how Roman society managed water resources. We concluded that for the Romans, water was a property that could be both privately and publicly owned. This had a special effect on the dynamics of supply. Thus, in its own way, the ownership of springs dictated the need for infrastructure and different solutions in construction. The owner of the land where the spring was located had private ownership of the water source, while water was considered public property if it sprung or flowed on public land. This paper also touches on the question of the legal status of the city's water supply infrastructure, the ways they were financed, and ways of managing them. The city's water supply infrastructure, i.e. the facilities that made it up, also was considered public property, but was not open to everyone and was managed by city magistrates and public authorities. After establishing a basis for our research in this way, based on the already mentioned aspects of water supply - geographical, social, legal, religious, and technological - this dissertation follows an overview of the preserved remains of the ancient water supply infrastructure, as well as relevant data for this topic, derived from previous archaeological research of water supply infrastructure on the Croatian Adriatic. This part of the research is divided into 4 different subparts: a review of the water supply of cities of the Croatian Adriatic, a review of the water supply of rural areas of the Croatian Adriatic, a review of the water supply of the Roman military camps of the Croatian Adriatic and, finally, a review of the issue of the number of ancient cisterns found in the observed area. When reviewing the water supply of the ancient cities of the Croatian Adriatic, we studied the known finds from the area of ancient Poreč, Pula, Omišalj, Rab, Zadar, Caska, Novalja, Nin, Solin, Diocletian's Palace, and Cavtat. When considering rural water supply, we paid attention to the similarities and differences in needs and solutions between urban and rural water supply, and we took the water supply of the famous ancient villa in Verige bay as an example. When reviewing the water supply of the Roman military camps, we concentrated on the review and analysis of finds related to the legionary camps Burnum and Tilurium. We approached the issue of the number of cisterns in the observed area through an overview of known sites with documented cisterns and an analysis of the various uses cisterns could have had and their importance for water supply. According to the available material and knowledge, we believe that cisterns should be distinguished as, primarily, facilities for the storage or distribution of water. In conclusion, the synthesis of available archaeological finds and other data and their analysis created a clearer and refreshed picture of water supply in Roman urban and rural life in this strategic and highly urbanized area of the Roman state