Higher predation risk for insect prey at low latitudes and elevations

Biotic interactions underlie ecosystem structure and function, but predicting interaction outcomes is difficult. We tested the hypothesis that biotic interaction strength increases toward the equator, using a global experiment with model caterpillars to measure predation risk. Across an 11,660-kilometer latitudinal gradient spanning six continents, we found increasing predation toward the equator, with a parallel pattern of increasing predation toward lower elevations. Patterns across both latitude and elevation were driven by arthropod predators, with no systematic trend in attack rates by birds or mammals. These matching gradients at global and regional scales suggest consistent drivers of biotic interaction strength, a finding that needs to be integrated into general theories of herbivory, community organization, and life-history evolution

Diagnóstico brasileiro sobre biodiversidade e serviços ecossistêmicos : sumário para tomadores de decisão

A biodiversidade e os ecossistemas são elementos importantes para enfrentar as crises socioeconômicas e ambientais nacionais e globais, uma vez que proporcionam novas oportunidades de desenvolvimento. Incorporar a biodiversidade na vida cotidiana é uma oportunidade de ouro para promover o uso sustentável da biodiversidade e dos serviços ecossistêmicos. A conservação e a restauração da biodiversidade, dos ecossistemas e de seus serviços associados mostram potencial para um novo desenvolvimento social e econômico, como fonte de geração de emprego e renda, redução da pobreza e da desigualdade socioeconômica. A diversidade biológica brasileira também se expressa em sua imensa diversidade cultural, com uma grande variedade de detentores de conhecimento indígenas e tradicionais. Esses povos possuem vasto conhecimento sobre agrobiodiversidade, pesca, manejo do fogo, medicina natural, entre outros de valor comercial, cultural e espiritual. As principais conclusões deste Sumário para Tomadores de Decisão é que as mudanças no uso da terra e as mudanças climáticas tenham sido - e continuarão sendo ao longo deste século - os principais vetores da perda de biodiversidade e serviços ecossistêmicos no país. Intervenções políticas em diferentes níveis (do local ao nacional, do público ao privado) e a aplicação das leis existentes (mecanismos regulatórios e incentivos) são necessárias para promover a mitigação dos impactos negativos sobre a biodiversidade e a perda de serviços ecossistêmicos. O Brasil já possui uma ampla variedade de instrumentos de política e opções de governança socioambiental, bem como compromissos globais (ODS, Metas de Aichi, Acordo de Paris) relacionados à possibilidade de um futuro sustentável. Entretanto, o controle ineficiente da gestão ou a falta de incentivo para cumprir as regras traz riscos para a consolidação do caminho para esse futuro. O país tem instituições fortes e capazes, mas problemas de infraestrutura, processos lentos, medidas ineficazes e conflitos judiciais, sociais e ecológicos impedem a realização de um desempenho eficiente. Há uma falta de comunicação entre a ciência e a sociedade que precisa ser melhorada por meio do estabelecimento de um fluxo efetivo que torne a comunicação inclusiva e representativa, alcançando os tomadores de decisão públicos e privados. Esforços permanentes para integrar essas duas esferas de conhecimento na sociedade são desejáveis para criar confiança entre os formuladores de políticas e os pesquisadores.Biodiversity and ecosystems are important elements for addressing national and global socioeconomic and environmental crises, since they provide new development opportunities, for example, as source of job and income creation, and reduction in poverty and socioeconomic inequity. Brazilian biological diversity is also expressed in its immense cultural diversity, with a great variety of knowledge holders. These peoples possess vast knowledge on agrobiodiversity, fishing, fire management, natural medicine, among others of commercial, cultural and spiritual value. The main conclusions of this Summary for Police Makers is that land use changes and climate changes have been - and will continue to be throughout this century - the main drivers that result in the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the country. Political interventions at different levels (from local to national, from public to private) and the enforcement of existing laws (regulatory mechanisms and incentives) are required to cope with the mitigation of the negative impacts of biodiversity and ecosystem services loss. Brazil has already a wide variety of policy instruments and socioenvironmental governance options, as well as global commitments (ODS, Aich Targets, Paris Agreement) related to the objective of a sustainable future. However, inefficient management control or lack of incentive to comply with the rules pose risks to consolidating the path to this future. The country has strong and capable institutions, but infrastructural problems, slow processes, inefficient measurements and judicial, social and ecological conflicts obstruct a proficient performance. There is a lack of communication between science and society which needs to be improved by establishing an effective flow that makes communication inclusive and representative, reaching public and private decision makers. Permanent efforts to integrate Science and policy knowledges are desirable to build confidence between policy makers and researchers

Persistência de aves e controle de pragas em paisagens fragmentadas - uma perspectiva da ecologia de paisagens

The influence of habitat loss on biodiversity is related to a set of non-linear processes, which strongly affect isolation and connectivity and determine both extinction and colonization rates. Landscape changes due anthropogenic disturbances are driving not only species loss per se, but also loss of functions performed by those species, which could have important impacts on the provision of ecosystem services and ecosystem function. The objective of this dissertation is to move beyond our current understanding about landscape processes underpinning bird persistence and avian-mediated pest control in fragmented landscapes. In chapter 1, we systematically review the empirical evidence of landscape structure effects on avian-mediated pest control in agricultural systems worldwide in order to point out the main landscape processes underpinning ecosystem service provision and gaps in knowledge where research efforts should be focused. We have found 226 bird species that provide pest regulation worldwide, and a substantial proportion of those are native habitat-dependent species in tropical systems. Moreover, more heterogeneous landscapes, increased habitat amount, and decreased isolation among patches are positively associated with increased avian-mediated pest control rates. Then, using bird data collected in fragmented landscapes in the Brazilian Atlantic forest, in chapter 2 we test for community-level extinction thresholds across a range of biodiversity indices (taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity) in order to evaluate how much habitat is need to maintain sustainable ecosystem functioning and ecosystem resilience, and how matrix composition might affect these thresholds. In general, we have found that more permeable matrices are able to postpone species loss in fragmented landscapes. However, since habitat loss reaches 20% of habitat remaining, all aspects of biodiversity are compromised. Finally, in chapter 3 we investigate the cross-habitat spillover process - one of the main processes regulating avian-mediated pest control in tropical regions. Matrix composition is a key factor in facilitating species movement into matrices, as 24% of the species pool can spill over into coffee plantations, while spillover into pasture is nearly non-existent. Moreover, the interaction between forest cover and edge density is an important predictor of spillover when habitat amount is low. Our results suggest that landscape configuration and matrix composition should be considered when planning agricultural landscapes in order to ensure long-term persistence of biodiversity and ecosystem services provisionO efeito da perda de habitat sobre a biodiversidade está ligado a um conjunto de processos não-lineares que fortemente afetam a conectividade e o isolamento da paisagem, e determinam taxas de extinção e colonização. Mudanças na estrutura da paisagem desencadeadas por distúrbios antropogênicos levam não somente à perda de espécies per se, mas também a perda de funções que estas espécies desempenham no ecossistema, com importantes implicações em termos de funcionalidade e provisão de serviços ecossistêmicos. O objetivo geral desta tese é elucidar os processos, que ocorrem no nível da paisagem, que modulam a persistência de aves e, consequentemente, as funções destas aves na provisão do controle de pragas em paisagens fragmentadas. No primeiro capítulo da tese, nós revisamos sistematicamente as evidências empíricas dos efeitos da estrutura da paisagem sobre o controle de pragas provido por aves em sistemas agrícolas ao redor do mundo, identificando os processos, no nível da paisagem, subjacentes a este controle e as lacunas de conhecimento onde futuros esforços devem ser concentrados. Identificamos 226 espécies de aves provendo controle de pragas em sistemas agrícolas, sendo que uma porção substancial destas espécies em sistemas tropicais são dependentes de habitats nativos. Em geral, paisagens mais heterogêneas, com elevada cobertura de habitat nativo e menor isolamento entre fragmentos estão positivamente relacionados com elevadas taxas de controle de pragas provido por aves. Por conseguinte, no segundo capítulo, usamos dados de aves em paisagens fragmentadas emersas em diferentes contextos de matriz agrícola na Mata Atlântica brasileira, para testar limiares de extinção ao nível de comunidade. Foram usadas diferentes métricas de diversidade biológica (taxonômica, funcional e filogenética), com o intuito de avaliar o quanto de habitat é necessário para garantir o funcionamento e resiliência do ecossistema. Nós encontramos que matrizes mais permeáveis são capazes de postergar a perda de espécies em paisagens fragmentadas, no entanto, quando a perda de habitat alcança o limiar crítico de 20%, todos os aspectos da biodiversidade estão comprometidos, independentemente do tipo de matriz. Por fim, no capítulo 3, nós investigamos o processo de \'transbordamento\' (i.e. spillover), um dos principais processos reguladores da provisão do serviço de controle de pragas pela biota dependente de habitats nativos. Nós demonstramos que a composição da matriz é um fator determinante facilitando o movimento de espécies para as matrizes agrícolas, sendo que 24% do pool de espécies consegue utilizar matrizes de cafezal, enquanto este movimento é quase inexistente em matrizes de pastagem. Ademais, em paisagens com pouca cobertura florestal, a interação entre cobertura florestal e densidade de borda é um importante preditivo do spillover. Nossos resultados sugerem que a configuração da paisagem e a composição da matriz devem ser consideradas no planejamento de paisagens agrícolas para garantir a persistência em longo prazo da biodiversidade e a provisão de serviços ecossistêmico

Data from: Land use type, forest cover, and forest edges modulate avian cross-habitat spillover

1.Natural habitats adjacent to agricultural areas are often considered sources of species that provide beneficial regulating ecosystem services through cross-habitat spillover. Both inter-habitat matrix and landscape configuration can influence spillover by controlling organismal ability to disperse through landscapes, and affecting the provision of additional or supplementary resources that impact organism survival. 2.To understand how landscape structure in terms of matrix land use type, forest cover, and edge density might facilitate avian cross-habitat spillover, we sampled avian communities in forest patches and adjacent land use types (coffee plantations or cattle pastures) using a well-replicated study design across 92 sampling sites across a landscape-context forest cover gradient (6-60%). 3.Land use type was a key factor influencing avian cross-habitat spillover, facilitating species movement into coffee plantations and acting as a barrier to spillover into cattle pastures. We found that 24% of the forest-dependent species pool was capable of spillover into coffee plantations, while spillover was nearly non-existent in cattle pastures. 4.Forest cover was also the main driver of spillover into coffee plantations. There was a positive relationship between forest cover and spillover, potentially due to processes related with i) a higher density of organisms in-patches, ii) decreased isolation among patches facilitating species movement, and iii) higher landscape supplementation processes. 5.Finally, we found edge density had an additive effect with forest cover on spillover. Spillover was higher in high-forested landscapes with many forest-matrix edges, possibly due to increased structural connectivity for species able to move through edges, and to improved access for forest-dwelling species to different resource types (complementation processes). 6.Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate that land use type is a key factor facilitating species spillover into agricultural matrices and that the influence of land use type on spillover is further modulated by a combination of native habitat amount and edge density. These results should be considered in efforts to design or manage sustainable agricultural landscapes in order to enhance both bird persistence and the provision of bird-mediated ecosystem services

Data from: Biodiversity extinction thresholds are modulated by matrix type

Biodiversity extinction thresholds are abrupt declines in biological diversity that occur with habitat loss, associated with a decline in habitat connectivity. Matrix quality should influence the location of thresholds along habitat loss gradients through its effects on connectivity; however these relationships have seldom been explored empirically. Using field data from 23 independent 1,254 ha landscapes in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, we evaluated how tropical avian biodiversity responds to native forest loss within habitat patches embedded either in homogeneous pasture matrix context (with a high proportion of cattle pastures), and heterogeneous coffee matrix context (with high abundance of sun coffee plantations). We considered taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity, and tested if matrix type and choice of diversity metric influenced the location of biodiversity thresholds along the forest cover gradient. We found that matrix type postponed the abrupt loss of taxonomic diversity, from a threshold of 35% of forest cover in homogeneous pasture matrix to 19% in heterogeneous coffee matrix. Phylogenetic diversity responded similarly, with thresholds at 30% and 24% in homogeneous-pasture and heterogeneous-coffee matrices, respectively, but no relationship with forest cover was detected when corrected for richness correlation. Despite the absence of a threshold for functional diversity in either matrix types, a strong decline below 20% of habitat amount was detected. Finally, below 20% native habitat loss, all diversity indices demonstrated abrupt declines, indicating that even higher-quality matrices cannot postpone diversity loss below this critical threshold. These results highlight that taxonomic diversity is a more sensitive index of biodiversity loss in fragmented landscapes, which may be used as a benchmark to prevent subsequent functional and phylogenetic losses. Furthermore, increasing matrix quality appears an efficient conservation strategy to maintain higher biodiversity levels in fragmented landscapes over a larger range of habitat loss

Spillover data into both coffee plantations and pastures

These are the raw data regarding avian cross-habitat spillover into agricultural matrices

Biodiversity indexes per sampling site

All biodiversity indexes calculated (TD, FD, PD, PDses) per sampling site

Species abundance (PAI)

Species abundance (PAI) per sampling site within both homogeneous pasture and heterogeneous coffee matrices. PAI is a abundance index calculated as the number of detections of a given species in a given sampling site, divided by the total number of point counts (N = 4)

Species functional traits

Species functional traits used to calculate the Functional Diversity

Phylogenetic trees

Phylogenetic trees of birds were obtained from BirdTree (https://birdtree.org/), and used to calculate the phylogenetic indexes. The birdtree.org website accompanies the following studies: Jetz W, Thomas GH, Joy JB, Hartmann K, Mooers AO (2012) The global diversity of birds in space and time. Nature 491: 444-448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature11631, and Jetz W, Thomas GH, Joy JB, Hartmann K, Redding D, Mooers AO (2014) Distribution and conservation of global evolutionary distinctness in birds. Current Biology 24: 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.011