The ‘selves’ in banned performance enhancement: Investigating narcissism and compassion in the context of doping

Intentional doping is a goal-directed behaviour influenced by a range of psychological factors, potentially including personality traits. However, to date, understanding of how the selves may influence use of banned performance enhancing substances and methods is scarce. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine two opposing self-concepts, narcissism (i.e., a willingness to construct and maintain a positive self-image) and self-compassion (i.e., action to approach and accept a negative self or related distress in a peaceful mind), in the context of doping. In a sample of 178 competitive athletes (M age = 24.44, M years of training = 7.1), we examined both grandiose and vulnerable aspects of narcissism, self-compassion, fears of compassion, and their interactions in relation to doping moral disengagement, doping self-regulatory efficacy, and doping willingness. We found athletes high in either grandiose, vulnerable, or both aspects of narcissism were at risk for intentional doping, whereas a low-low combination was the lowest in such risk. High self-compassion mitigated the relationships between grandiose narcissism and doping moral disengagement and between vulnerable narcissism and doping willingness, regardless of whether participants were fearful of feelings of self-compassion. However, self-compassion was associated with higher doping willingness for individuals high in vulnerable narcissism when fear of compassion expressed by others was high but doping willingness was lower in the same group when fear of compassion from others was low. These findings offer new insights into narcissism-related doping risks and highlight the potential practical benefits of compassion-focused interventions to reduce doping risks

Sport supplement use predicts doping likelihood via sport supplement beliefs

Introduction The gateway hypothesis posits that athletes are at risk of progressing to doping if sport supplements are already used for performance enhancement. Recent research has indicated that athletes with stronger beliefs in the effectiveness of sport supplements in improving performance are more likely to use sport supplements (1). Hypothetically, therefore, if athletes’ beliefs about sports supplements influence supplement use, and if supplement use predicts doping (i.e. the gateway hypothesis), it is reasonable to suggest a relationship between beliefs about supplements and doping likelihood. However, this relationship remains untested. This study aimed to test the mediating role of sport supplement beliefs on the relationship between sport supplement use and doping likelihood. Method Four hundred and eighty one competitive athletes (mean + SD: age = 19.6 ± 2.2 yrs, hour per week training = 6.3 ± 4.5, years competing = 5.9 ± 4.6) were recruited from sports clubs and asked to complete measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs and doping likelihood. Results Sport supplement use was associated with sport supplement beliefs (r = 0.46, p <0.01) and doping likelihood (r = 0.14, p < 0.01), and sport supplement beliefs were correlated with doping likelihood (r = 0.22, p <0.01). Mediation analysis indicated that sport supplement beliefs significantly mediated the relationship between sport supplement use and doping likelihood (β = 0.20, 95% CI = 0.10 to 0.30), whereas sport supplement use was not directly related to doping likelihood (β = 0.04, 95% CI = -0.05 to 0.15). Conclusion The results of this study indicate sport supplement use predicts doping likelihood via sport supplement beliefs. These findings provide novel evidence to suggest that athletes using sport supplements are more likely to dope due to their belief in the effectiveness of these substances and could help further explain why athletes using sport supplements are more likely to progress to doping (i.e. gateway hypothesis)

Sport supplement use predicts doping attitudes and likelihood via sport supplement beliefs

The aim of this study was to examine: 1) whether sport supplement use is related to doping and 2) whether sport supplement beliefs mediated this relationship. In Study 1, athletes (N = 598), completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping attitudes. In Study 2, athletes (N = 475) completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping likelihood. In both studies, sport supplement use predicted doping outcomes indirectly via sport supplement beliefs. Our findings provide novel evidence to suggest that sport supplement users, who strongly believe that sport supplements are effective, are more likely to dope. For anti-doping organisations wishing to prevent doping, targeting an athlete’s beliefs about sport supplements may improve the effectiveness of anti-doping prevention programmes

Linking Narcissism, Motivation and Doping Attitudes in Sport: A Multilevel Investigation Involving Coaches and Athletes

Research on coaching (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2009) has shown that coaches can display controlling behaviors that have detrimental effects on athletes' basic psychological needs and quality of sport experiences. The current study extends this literature by considering coach narcissism as a potential antecedent of coaches' controlling behaviors. Further, the study tests a model linking coaches' (n = 59) own reports of narcissistic tendencies with athletes' (n = 493) perceptions of coach controlling behaviors, experiences of need frustration, and attitudes toward doping. Multilevel path analysis revealed that coach narcissism was directly and positively associated with athletes' perceptions of controlling behaviors, and was indirectly and positively associated with athletes' reports of needs frustration. Additionally, athletes' perceptions of coach behaviors were positively associated-directly and indirectly-with attitudes toward doping. The findings advance understanding of controlling coach behaviors, their potential antecedents, and their associations with athletes' attitudes toward doping

Understanding the Interplay Among Regulatory Self-Efficacy, Moral Disengagement, and Academic Cheating Behaviour During Vocational Education: A Three-Wave Study

The literature has suggested that to understand the diffusion of unethical conduct in the workplace, it is important to investigate the underlying processes sustaining engagement in misbehaviour and to study what occurs during vocational education. Drawing on social-cognitive theory, in this study, we longitudinally examined the role of two opposite dimensions of the self-regulatory moral system, regulatory self-efficacy and moral disengagement, in influencing academic cheating behaviour. In addition, in line with the theories highlighting the bidirectional relationship between cognitive processes and behaviour, we aimed to also examine the reciprocal influence of behaviour on these dimensions over time. Overall, no previous studies have examined the longitudinal interplay between these variables. The sample included 866 (62.8% female) nursing students who were assessed three times annually from the beginning of their vocational education. The findings from a cross-lagged model confirmed that regulatory self-efficacy and moral disengagement have opposite influences on cheating behaviour, that regulatory self-efficacy negatively influences not only the engagement in misconduct but also the justification mechanisms that allow the divorce between moral standards and action, and that moral disengagement and cheating behaviour reciprocally support each other over time. Specifically, not only did moral disengagement influence cheating behaviour even when controlling for its prior levels, but also cheating behaviour affected moral disengagement one year later, controlling for its prior levels. These findings suggest that recourse to wrongdoing could gradually lead to further normalising this kind of behaviour and morally desensitising individuals to misconduct

Addressing the Unique Needs for Anti-Doping and Clean-Sport Education of Para-Athletes and Athlete-Support Personnel: An International Delphi Study

Background There has been a lack of consideration of the specific needs of para-athletes and athlete-support personnel (ASP) when designing anti-doping and clean-sport education. To this, we developed recommendations for anti-doping and clean-sport education addressing the specific needs of these groups. Methods The Delphi method was used. Stakeholders with relevant expertise were invited to be panel members. In Round 1, the expert panel suggested novel elements for anti-doping and clean-sport education with para-athletes and ASP. These suggestions were integrated within a survey assessing the importance of 28 potential elements. In Round 2, the expert panel completed this survey. In Round 3, panel members ranked the relative importance of each topic area rated highest in Round 2. Based on these rankings, a draft set of recommendations was created. In Round 4, panel members rated the degree to which they accepted these recommendations and the feasibility of their delivery. Results The results of Round 2 and Round 3 were used to create education recommendations for para-athletes and ASP. In Round 4, most panel members fully accepted the para-athlete and ASP recommendations. Conclusions Adoption and implementation of the recommendations created should lead to greater engagement, enhanced learning, and more effective education for para-athletes and ASP

“We wouldn’t of made friends if we didn’t come to Football United”: the impacts of a football program on young people’s peer, prosocial and cross-cultural relationships

Background Sport as a mechanism to build relationships across cultural boundaries and to build positive interactions among young people has often been promoted in the literature. However, robust evaluation of sport-for-development program impacts is limited. This study reports on an impact evaluation of a sport-for-development program in Australia, Football United®. Methods A quasi-experimental mixed methods design was employed using treatment partitioning (different groups compared had different levels of exposure to Football United). A survey was undertaken with 142 young people (average age of 14.7 years with 22.5% of the sample comprising girls) in four Australian schools. These schools included two Football United and two Comparison schools where Football United was not operating. The survey instrument was composed of previously validated measures, including emotional symptoms, peer problems and relationships, prosocial behaviour, other-group orientation, feelings of social inclusion and belonging and resilience. Face to face interviews were undertaken with a purposeful sample (n = 79) of those who completed the survey. The participants in the interviews were selected to provide a diversity of age, gender and cultural backgrounds. Results Young people who participated in Football United showed significantly higher levels of other-group orientation than a Comparison Group (who did not participate in the program). The Football United boys had significantly lower scores on the peer problem scale and significantly higher scores on the prosocial scale than boys in the Comparison Group. Treatment partitioning analyses showed positive, linear associations between other-group orientation and total participation in the Football United program. A lower score on peer problems and higher scores on prosocial behaviour in the survey were associated with regularity of attendance at Football United. These quantitative results are supported by qualitative data analysed from interviews. Conclusions The study provides evidence of the effects of Football United on key domains of peer and prosocial relationships for boys and other-group orientation for young people in the program sites studied. The effects on girls, and the impacts of the program on the broader school environment and at the community level, require further investigation

Moral disengagement and the harms of cocaine use

There has been recent UK media attention on the global impact of the cocaine trade and the morality of personal use of cocaine powder. In this study we investigated whether people who use cocaine engage in moral disengagement (MD) strategies to reduce anticipated guilt associated with use. Participants read text describing the impact of the global cocaine market on others and completed a range of measures including assessments of substance use, MD, anticipated guilt, internalised moral identity, and empathy. We hypothesised that cocaine-related MD would positively predict cocaine use, and this would be partly mediated by anticipated guilt. Complete data were obtained from 254 participants through an anonymous cross-sectional survey (59.8% Female; mean age 30.8 ± 12.6 years). Our hypotheses were supported; i) MD predicted cocaine use positively and anticipated guilt negatively; ii) anticipated guilt negatively predicted cocaine use; anticipated guilt partially mediated the relationship between MD and cocaine use. People who use powder cocaine may use MD to reduce the anticipated guilt associated with knowledge of the harms associated with the drugs trade. Campaigns that focus on the morality of cocaine use or ethical choices may therefore have limited impact unless MD is challenged as part of these campaigns

“Big-blast, little-blast”: Risk neutralization strategies for sustaining masculinity by older men who use anabolic androgenic steroids (OMAAS)

UK research in the past decade has indicated the emergence of a cohort older men who use anabolic androgenic steroids (OMAAS), with studies suggesting OMAAS are motivated to use for aesthetics, performance enhancement, to combat the effects of ageing, and for perceived testosterone replacement therapy associated with wellbeing. Currently, there is a lack of information on the experiences and perspectives of harm reduction workers who support OMAAS at needle and syringe programmes in the UK. Semi-structured in-depth interviews (N = 13) with harm reduction workers were conducted to explore their experiences of engagement with OMAAS and how they view their healthcare and support needs. The analysis generated four key themes with subthemes: 1) AAS Use Patterns of Older Men Accessing Healthcare Services; 2) Motivations for AAS Use; 3) Adverse Health Effects; 4) and Healthcare Responses to OMAAS. Two higher levels of abstraction centred on ‘risk neutralization’ and ‘masculinity’ were identified above the theme level and were described by all harm reduction workers in distinct ways throughout the findings. They focused on scapegoating, self-confidence, and risk comparison as strategies to uphold masculine values and identity through AAS use. The findings are useful in informing AAS specific training for harm reduction workers, medical and healthcare professionals, and age-appropriate healthcare and treatment pathways specific to the needs of OMAAS who engage in risk neutralization techniques to conform to traditional masculine norms. There is a need for accessible, adequate, non-judgemental AAS-specific treatment and care pathways for OMAAS. Needle and syringe programmes should be developed to implement and evaluate interventions such as blood testing, cardiac monitoring, substance testing, and rapid access and referral pathways for medical support. Medical professionals and harm reduction workers at needle and syringe programmes are urged to address issues with OMAAS’ perceptions of masculinity to help prevent and encourage safer use

Generating evidence on the use of Image and performance enhancing drugs in the UK: Results from a scoping review and expert consultation by the Anabolic Steroid UK network.

Background The use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and associated image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) is now a global phenomenon. There is a need to develop evidence to support the development of interventions to prevent the commencement of use, to minimise the potential harms or to support those in their cessation of use. While the United Kingdom (UK) is no exception to this issue, its public health and legislative response to the phenomenon differs to other countries and requires the examination of research specific to the UK. Therefore, a scoping review has been conducted to examine the recent relevant literature to help inform the development and evaluation of effective interventions to reduce the harmful use of IPEDs. Methods A comprehensive search strategy was developed for multiple bibliographic databases, supported by and iterative citation searching process and complimented by expert input from the Anabolic Steroid UK Network. Research conducted by or UK academics or within the UK were eligible, if published in the previous five years. Results 3 In total 87 eligible outputs were identified, including 26 review articles, 25 qualitative papers and 24 quantitative papers. together with small numbers of clinical studies/case reports (6) and commentaries/correspondence (6). The most common topics of research were public health, treatment and harm reduction (41), followed by studies focusing on epidemiology, sub-groups of people using IPEDs and motivations for use (34). The studies illustrated the diverse populations of people who use a range of enhancement drugs including concomitant psychoactive drug use. A number of papers focused on blood borne viruses and associated issues, while others reported on the uptake of needle and syringe programmes. No effectiveness evaluations related to any aspect of treatment, harm reduction or other intervention were published during study period. Conclusion There is a need for the development of effectiveness evaluations of current interventions and any future service provision for people using image and performance enhancing drugs. While there have been no studies of this nature to date, this review illustrates the rich data that has been gathered through diverse methodologies, that will assist in the development of future effectiveness evaluations