The Structure of Turbulence and mixed-phase Cloud Microphysics in a Highly Supercooled Altocumulus Cloud

Observations of vertically resolved turbulence and cloud microphysics in a mixed-phase altocumulus cloud are presented using in situ measurements from an instrumented aircraft. The turbulence spectrum is observed to have an increasingly negative skewness with distance below cloud top, confirming that longwave radiative cooling from the liquid layer cloud is the source of turbulence kinetic energy. Turbulence data are presented from both the liquid cloud layer and ice virga below. Vertical profiles of both bulk and microphysical liquid and ice cloud properties indicate that ice is produced within the liquid cloud layer at a temperature of -30° C. These high resolution in situ measurements support previous remotely-sensed observations from both ground based and space borne instruments, and could be used to evaluate numerical model simulations of altocumulus clouds at all scales from eddy resolving to climate

Clastic polygonal networks around Lyot crater, Mars: Possible formation mechanisms from morphometric analysis

Polygonal networks of patterned ground are a common feature in cold-climate environments. They can form through the thermal contraction of ice-cemented sediment (i.e. formed from fractures), or the freezing and thawing of ground ice (i.e. formed by patterns of clasts, or ground deformation). The characteristics of these landforms provide information about environmental conditions. Analogous polygonal forms have been observed on Mars leading to inferences about environmental conditions. We have identified clastic polygonal features located around Lyot crater, Mars (50°N, 30°E). These polygons are unusually large ( > 100 m diameter) compared to terrestrial clastic polygons, and contain very large clasts, some of which are up to 15 metres in diameter. The polygons are distributed in a wide arc around the eastern side of Lyot crater, at a consistent distance from the crater rim. Using high-resolution imaging data, we digitised these features to extract morphological information. These data are compared to existing terrestrial and Martian polygon data to look for similarities and differences and to inform hypotheses concerning possible formation mechanisms. Our results show the clastic polygons do not have any morphometric features that indicate they are similar to terrestrial sorted, clastic polygons formed by freeze-thaw processes. They are too large, do not show the expected variation in form with slope, and have clasts that do not scale in size with polygon diameter. However, the clastic networks are similar in network morphology to thermal contraction cracks, and there is a potential direct Martian analogue in a sub-type of thermal contraction polygons located in Utopia Planitia. Based upon our observations, we reject the hypothesis that polygons located around Lyot formed as freeze-thaw polygons and instead an alternative mechanism is put forward: they result from the infilling of earlier thermal contraction cracks by wind-blown material, which then became compressed and/or cemented resulting in a resistant fill. Erosion then leads to preservation of these polygons in positive relief, while later weathering results in the fracturing of the fill material to form angular clasts. These results suggest that there was an extensive area of ice-rich terrain, the extent of which is linked to ejecta from Lyot crater

Temporal estimation in prediction motion tasks is biased by a moving destination

© 2018 The Authors. An ability to predict the time-to-contact (TTC) of moving objects that become momentarily hidden is advantageous in everyday life and could be particularly so in fast-ball sports. Prediction motion (PM) experiments have sought to test this ability using tasks where a disappearing target moves toward a stationary destination. Here, we developed two novel versions of the PM task in which the destination either moved away from (Chase) or toward (Attract) the moving target. The target and destination moved with different speeds such that collision occurred 750, 1,000 or 1,250 ms after target occlusion. To determine if domain-specific experience conveys an advantage in PM tasks, we compared the performance of different sporting groups ranging from internationally competing athletes to nonsporting controls. There was no difference in performance between sporting groups and non-sporting controls but there were significant and independent effects on response error by target speed, destination speed, and occlusion period. We simulated these findings using a revised version of the linear TTC model of response timing for PM tasks (Yakimoff, Bocheva, & Mitrania, 1987; Yakimoff, Mateeff, Ehrenstein, & Hohnsbein, 1993) in which retinal input from the moving destination biases the internal representation of the occluded target. This revision closely reproduced the observed patterns of response error and thus describes a means by which the brain might estimate TTC when the target and destination are in motion

Faster visual reaction times in elite athletes are not linked to better gaze stability

The issue of whether visually-mediated, simple reaction time (VRT) is faster in elite athletes is contentious. Here, we examined if and how VRT is affected by gaze stability in groups of international cricketers (16 females, 28 males), professional rugby-league players (21 males), and non-sporting controls (20 females, 30 males). VRT was recorded via a button-press response to the sudden appearance of a stimulus (circular target - diameter 0.8°), that was presented centrally, or 7.5° to the left or right of fixation. The incidence and timing of saccades and blinks occurring from 450ms before stimulus onset to 225ms after onset were measured to quantify gaze stability. Our results show that 1) cricketers have faster VRT than controls; 2) blinks and, in particular, saccades are associated with slower VRT regardless of the level of sporting ability; 3) elite female cricketers had steadier gaze (fewer saccades and blinks) compared to female controls; 4) When we accounted for the presence of blinks and saccades, our group comparisons of VRT were virtually unchanged. The stability of gaze is not a factor that explains the difference between elite and control groups in VRT. Thus we conclude that better gaze stability cannot explain faster VRT in elite sports players

Three-dimensional effects of an air curtain used to restrict cold room infiltration

The aim of this study was to compare the measured effectiveness of an air curtain device at different jet velocities against a three-dimensional (3-D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. The air curtain device was not as wide as the entrance and had a geometry that encouraged 3-D flow. By carefully setting up the air curtain an effectiveness of 0.71 was achieved compared to the initial value of only 0.31 as set by the air curtain device installer. The 3-D CFD model predicted the infiltration through the entrance with no air curtain to an accuracy of within 20-32%. The predicted effectiveness, E, of the air curtain at different jet velocities was 0.10-0.15 lower than measured. The shape of the effectiveness curve against jet velocity was well predicted. CFD has shown that the flow from this air curtain cannot be considered as 2-D. The central part of the jet is deflected away from the cold store by the Coanda effect caused by the air curtain device's fan body. The edges of the jet are deflected into the cold store by the stack pressures and turn into the void caused by the deflected central jet. © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

State based model of long-term potentiation and synaptic tagging and capture

Recent data indicate that plasticity protocols have not only synapse-specific but also more widespread effects. In particular, in synaptic tagging and capture (STC), tagged synapses can capture plasticity-related proteins, synthesized in response to strong stimulation of other synapses. This leads to long-lasting modification of only weakly stimulated synapses. Here we present a biophysical model of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus that incorporates several key results from experiments on STC. The model specifies a set of physical states in which a synapse can exist, together with transition rates that are affected by high- and low-frequency stimulation protocols. In contrast to most standard plasticity models, the model exhibits both early- and late-phase LTP/D, de-potentiation, and STC. As such, it provides a useful starting point for further theoretical work on the role of STC in learning and memory

On defining the Hamiltonian beyond quantum theory

Energy is a crucial concept within classical and quantum physics. An essential tool to quantify energy is the Hamiltonian. Here, we consider how to define a Hamiltonian in general probabilistic theories, a framework in which quantum theory is a special case. We list desiderata which the definition should meet. For 3-dimensional systems, we provide a fully-defined recipe which satisfies these desiderata. We discuss the higher dimensional case where some freedom of choice is left remaining. We apply the definition to example toy theories, and discuss how the quantum notion of time evolution as a phase between energy eigenstates generalises to other theories.Comment: Authors' accepted manuscript for inclusion in the Foundations of Physics topical collection on Foundational Aspects of Quantum Informatio

Experimental loophole-free violation of a Bell inequality using entangled electron spins separated by 1.3 km

For more than 80 years, the counterintuitive predictions of quantum theory have stimulated debate about the nature of reality. In his seminal work, John Bell proved that no theory of nature that obeys locality and realism can reproduce all the predictions of quantum theory. Bell showed that in any local realist theory the correlations between distant measurements satisfy an inequality and, moreover, that this inequality can be violated according to quantum theory. This provided a recipe for experimental tests of the fundamental principles underlying the laws of nature. In the past decades, numerous ingenious Bell inequality tests have been reported. However, because of experimental limitations, all experiments to date required additional assumptions to obtain a contradiction with local realism, resulting in loopholes. Here we report on a Bell experiment that is free of any such additional assumption and thus directly tests the principles underlying Bell's inequality. We employ an event-ready scheme that enables the generation of high-fidelity entanglement between distant electron spins. Efficient spin readout avoids the fair sampling assumption (detection loophole), while the use of fast random basis selection and readout combined with a spatial separation of 1.3 km ensure the required locality conditions. We perform 245 trials testing the CHSH-Bell inequality $S \leq 2$ and find $S = 2.42 \pm 0.20$. A null hypothesis test yields a probability of $p = 0.039$ that a local-realist model for space-like separated sites produces data with a violation at least as large as observed, even when allowing for memory in the devices. This result rules out large classes of local realist theories, and paves the way for implementing device-independent quantum-secure communication and randomness certification.Comment: Raw data will be made available after publicatio

Lack of trust in maternal support is associated with negative interpretations of ambiguous maternal behavior

Attachment theory assumes that children who lack trust in maternal availability for support are more inclined to interpret maternal behavior in congruence with their expectation that mother will remain unavailable for support. To provide the first test of this assumption, early adolescents (9-13 years old) were asked to assess whether ambiguous interactions with mother should be interpreted in a positive or a negative way. In our sample (n = 322), results showed that early adolescents' lack of trust in their mother's availability for support was related to more negative interpretations of maternal behavior. The associations remained significant after controlling for depressive mood. The importance of these findings for our understanding of attachment theory, attachment stability, and clinical practice are discussed

ERK1/2 signaling dominates over RhoA signaling in regulating early changes in RNA expression induced by endothelin-1 in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy is associated with changes in gene expression. Extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) and RhoA [activated by hypertrophic agonists (e.g. endothelin-1)] regulate gene expression and are implicated in the response, but their relative significance in regulating the cardiomyocyte transcriptome is unknown. Our aim was to establish the significance of ERK1/2 and/or RhoA in the early cardiomyocyte transcriptomic response to endothelin-1.Cardiomyocytes were exposed to endothelin-1 (1 h) with/without PD184352 (to inhibit ERK1/2) or C3 transferase (C3T, to inhibit RhoA). RNA expression was analyzed using microarrays and qPCR. ERK1/2 signaling positively regulated approximately 65% of the early gene expression response to ET-1 with a small (approximately 2%) negative effect, whereas RhoA signaling positively regulated approximately 10% of the early gene expression response to ET-1 with a greater (approximately 14%) negative contribution. Of RNAs non-responsive to endothelin-1, 66 or 448 were regulated by PD184352 or C3T, respectively, indicating that RhoA had a more significant effect on baseline RNA expression. mRNAs upregulated by endothelin-1 encoded a number of receptor ligands (e.g. Ereg, Areg, Hbegf) and transcription factors (e.g. Abra/Srf) that potentially propagate the response.ERK1/2 dominates over RhoA in the early transcriptomic response to endothelin-1. RhoA plays a major role in maintaining baseline RNA expression but, with upregulation of Abra/Srf by endothelin-1, RhoA may regulate changes in RNA expression over longer times. Our data identify ERK1/2 as a more significant node than RhoA in regulating the early stages of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy