Inflamm-aging: STAT3 Signaling Pushes Muscle Stem Cells off Balance

Two recent studies shed light on mechanisms underlying muscle dysfunction in age and disease. They reveal that JAK-STAT signaling regulates myogenic differentiation, leading to a reduced reservoir of muscle stem cells. Both genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of STAT3 signaling improve stem cell homeostasis and physiology of aged and dystrophic muscles

Satellite cells attract monocytes and use macrophages as a support to escape apoptosis and enhance muscle growth

Once escaped from the quiescence niche, precursor cells interact with stromal components that support their survival, proliferation, and differentiation. We examined interplays between human myogenic precursor cells (mpc) and monocyte/macrophages (MP), the main stromal cell type observed at site of muscle regeneration. mpc selectively and specifically attracted monocytes in vitro after their release from quiescence, chemotaxis declining with differentiation. A DNA macroarray–based strategy identified five chemotactic factors accounting for 77% of chemotaxis: MP-derived chemokine, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, fractalkine, VEGF, and the urokinase system. MP showed lower constitutive chemotactic activity than mpc, but attracted monocytes much strongly than mpc upon cross-stimulation, suggesting mpc-induced and predominantly MP-supported amplification of monocyte recruitment. Determination of [3H]thymidine incorporation, oligosomal DNA levels and annexin-V binding showed that MP stimulate mpc proliferation by soluble factors, and rescue mpc from apoptosis by direct contacts. We conclude that once activated, mpc, which are located close by capillaries, initiate monocyte recruitment and interplay with MP to amplify chemotaxis and enhance muscle growth

Highly dynamic transcriptional signature of distinct macrophage subsets during sterile inflammation, resolution, and tissue repair

Abstract Macrophage gene expression determines phagocyte responses and effector functions. Macrophage plasticity has been mainly addressed in in vitro models that do not account for the environmental complexity observed in vivo. In this study, we show that microarray gene expression profiling revealed a highly dynamic landscape of transcriptomic changes of Ly6CposCX3CR1lo and Ly6CnegCX3CR1hi macrophage populations during skeletal muscle regeneration after a sterile damage. Systematic gene expression analysis revealed that the time elapsed, much more than Ly6C status, was correlated with the largest differential gene expression, indicating that the time course of inflammation was the predominant driving force of macrophage gene expression. Moreover, Ly6Cpos/Ly6Cneg subsets could not have been aligned to canonical M1/M2 profiles. Instead, a combination of analyses suggested the existence of four main features of muscle-derived macrophages specifying important steps of regeneration: 1) infiltrating Ly6Cpos macrophages expressed acute-phase proteins and exhibited an inflammatory profile independent of IFN-γ, making them damage-associated macrophages; 2) metabolic changes of macrophages, characterized by a decreased glycolysis and an increased tricarboxylic acid cycle/oxidative pathway, preceded the switch to and sustained their anti-inflammatory profile; 3) Ly6Cneg macrophages, originating from skewed Ly6Cpos cells, actively proliferated; and 4) later on, restorative Ly6Cneg macrophages were characterized by a novel profile, indicative of secretion of molecules involved in intercellular communications, notably matrix-related molecules. These results show the highly dynamic nature of the macrophage response at the molecular level after an acute tissue injury and subsequent repair, and associate a specific signature of macrophages to predictive specialized functions of macrophages at each step of tissue injury/repair.</jats:p

Macrophages: supportive cells for tissue repair and regeneration.

International audienceMacrophages, and more broadly inflammation, have been considered for a long time as bad markers of tissue homeostasis. However, if it is indisputable that macrophages are associated with many diseases in a deleterious way, new roles have emerged, showing beneficial properties of macrophages during tissue repair and regeneration. This discrepancy is likely due to the high plasticity of macrophages, which may exhibit a wide range of phenotypes and functions depending on their environment. Therefore, regardless of their role in immunity, macrophages play a myriad of roles in the maintenance and recovery of tissue homeostasis. They take a major part in the resolution of inflammation. They also exert various effects of parenchymal cells, including stem and progenitor cell, of which they regulate the fate. In the present review, few examples from various tissues are presented to illustrate that, beyond their specific properties in a given tissue, common features have been described that sustain a role of macrophages in the recovery and maintenance of tissue homeostasis

Modulation of Macrophage Activation State Protects Tissue from Necrosis during Critical Limb Ischemia in Thrombospondin-1-Deficient Mice

International audienceBACKGROUND: Macrophages, key regulators of healing/regeneration processes, strongly infiltrate ischemic tissues from patients suffering from critical limb ischemia (CLI). However pro-inflammatory markers correlate with disease progression and risk of amputation, suggesting that modulating macrophage activation state might be beneficial. We previously reported that thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) is highly expressed in ischemic tissues during CLI in humans. TSP-1 is a matricellular protein that displays well-known angiostatic properties in cancer, and regulates inflammation in vivo and macrophages properties in vitro. We therefore sought to investigate its function in a mouse model of CLI. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Using a genetic model of tsp-1(-/-) mice subjected to femoral artery excision, we report that tsp-1(-/-) mice were clinically and histologically protected from necrosis compared to controls. Tissue protection was associated with increased postischemic angiogenesis and muscle regeneration. We next showed that macrophages present in ischemic tissues exhibited distinct phenotypes in tsp-1(-/-) and wt mice. A strong reduction of necrotic myofibers phagocytosis was observed in tsp-1(-/-) mice. We next demonstrated that phagocytosis of muscle cell debris is a potent pro-inflammatory signal for macrophages in vitro. Consistently with these findings, macrophages that infiltrated ischemic tissues exhibited a reduced postischemic pro-inflammatory activation state in tsp-1(-/-) mice, characterized by a reduced Ly-6C expression and a less pro-inflammatory cytokine expression profile. Finally, we showed that monocyte depletion reversed clinical and histological protection from necrosis observed in tsp-1(-/-) mice, thereby demonstrating that macrophages mediated tissue protection in these mice. CONCLUSION: This study defines targeting postischemic macrophage activation state as a new potential therapeutic approach to protect tissues from necrosis and promote tissue repair during CLI. Furthermore, our data suggest that phagocytosis plays a crucial role in promoting a deleterious intra-tissular pro-inflammatory macrophage activation state during critical injuries. Finally, our results describe TSP-1 as a new relevant physiological target during critical leg ischemia

Cellules satellites et cellules souches musculaires

Le muscle strié squelettique adulte normal est capable de régénérer après une lésion, recouvrant ainsi complètement sa fonctionnalité. On sait depuis plusieurs décennies que cette capacité est due aux cellules satellites logeant le long des myofibres. Au début des années 2000, la myologie fondamentale a bénéficié du développement de nouvelles technologies et de l’émergence de l’étude des cellules souches adultes, qui ont identifié les cellules satellites comme les cellules souches adultes du muscle strié squelettique. Ces techniques ont également permis d’identifier plusieurs types de cellules souches non-satellites résidant dans le muscle et capables de former du muscle. Cet article présente une chronologie rapide des connaissances sur le sujet et aborde des questions actuelles quant à la biologie des cellules souches du muscle

Rôle des macrophages dans la régénération du muscle strié squelettique

Les MPs jouent un rôle clé dans la régénération du muscle strié squelettique en phagocytant les fibres nécrotiques et en jouant un rôle de support stromal vis-à-vis des cellules myogéniques (mpc). Cependant, les MPs sont connus pour leur hétérogénéité phénotypique et fonctionnelle. Un degré de complexité supplémentaire est donné par l'existence de 2 populations de monocytes circulants : la population principale de monocyte (MO) CD14hi CD16- (CX3CR1lo Gr-1hi chez la souris) semble recrutée dans les tissus inflammés et les MO CD14lo CD16+ (CX3CR1hiGr-1lo chez la souris) seraient à l'origine des MPs résidents des tissus. Nous avons montré que 2 populations de MO/MPs apparaissent séquentiellement dans le muscle au cours de la régénération post-lésionnelle : les MO/MPs CX3CR1lo GR-1+ envahissent rapidement le muscle (maximum 24h post-lésionnel) puis déclinent pour laisser place aux MO/MPs CX3CR1hi Gr-1 qui augmentent jusqu'au jour 7 post-lésionnel. Seuls les monocytes Gr-1+ sont recrutés dans le muscle. Ces cellules sont F4/80lo et quiescentes et présentent un profil inflammatoire caractérisé par l'expression de TNFalpha, d'IL-1beta et du SLPI. Dans le muscle, ces MO/MPs Gr-1+ effectuent une transition phénotypique pour devenir des MO/MPs anti-inflammatoires F4/80hi Gr-1- exprimant du TGFbeta, de l'IL-10 et le PPARgamma. Des expériences menées in vitro montrent que la phagocytose de débris myogéniques par des MPs inflammatoires déclenchent la production de TGFbeta. De plus, en culture, les MPs inflammatoires stimulent la croissance des mpc et inhibent leur différenciation alors que les MPs anti-inflammatoires favorisent fortement leur différenciation.PARIS12-Bib. électronique (940280011) / SudocSudocFranceF

Phénotypes fonctionnels des sous populations de macrophages au cours de la régénération musculaire et lors des myopathies dégénératives

Le muscle squelettique a la capacité de se régénérer suite à une lésion grâce aux cellules satellites qui sont les cellules souches du muscle. Après dommage musculaire, les cellules satellites s activent, prolifèrent, se différencient et fusionnent afin de reformer le muscle lésé. Cependant les cellules myogéniques ne sont pas les seules cellules impliquées dans la régénération musculaire. Des études précédentes réalisées au laboratoire ont montré chez la souris que les macrophages sont des cellules essentielles à la régénération musculaire. En effet, peu de temps après un dommage musculaire, les monocytes infiltrent le tissu lésé et se différencient en macrophages pro-inflammatoires Ly6Cpos (M1). Ces macrophages stimulent la prolifération des myoblastes et inhibent leur fusion. Puis les macrophages pro-inflammatoires changent de phénotype et deviennent des macrophages anti-inflammatoires Ly6Cneg (M2) qui stimulent la différenciation des myoblastes et les protègent de l apoptose. Ainsi, en fonction de leur phénotype, les macrophages exercent des rôles trophiques séquentiels sur les myoblastes tout au long du processus de régénération musculaire. Dans la première partie de notre étude, nous montrons in vitro que les macrophages humains soutiennent les différentes étapes de la myogenèse. Les macrophages M1 sont fortement attirés par les myoblastes. De plus ils stimulent la prolifération des myoblastes et inhibent leur fusion. Les macrophages M2 attirent les myoblastes et stimulent leur différenciation permettant ainsi la formation de larges myotubes. En utilisant des anticorps bloquants spécifiques, nous avons identifié plusieurs molécules sécrétées par les macrophages régulant la myogenèse chez l homme. Nos analyses in vivo chez l'homme confirment nos résultats obtenus in vitro. En effet, les macrophages M1 sont préférentiellement associés aux aires de régénération contenant des myoblastes non différenciés alors que les macrophages M2 sont associés aux aires de régénération contenant des myoblastes en différenciation. Dans un contexte de myopathie dégénérative, nous avons montré que les macrophages adoptent des phénotypes et des fonctions totalement différents des macrophages présents au cours de la régénération musculaire. Nous avons observé chez la souris et chez l homme, que les macrophages exprimant des marqueurs M1 sont associés à la fibrose et qu un traitement anti-inflammatoire réduit leur nombre dans le muscle dystrophique murin. Par isolement spécifique et cocultures ex vivo, nous avons montré qu'au cours de la régénération musculaire, les macrophages Ly6Cneg stimulent la production de collagène par les fibroblastes. A l'inverse au cours des myopathies dégénératives, ce sont les macrophages Ly6Cpos qui stimulent fortement l établissement de la fibrose en agissant directement sur les fibroblastes. De plus, ces macrophages Ly6Cpos, qui régulent négativement les fibroblastes au cours de la régénération musculaire, stimulent la différenciation des fibroblastes et myofibroblastes dans les myopathies. De plus, ils les protègent de l'apoptose, participant ainsi à la persistance de ces cellules fibrosantes. Ainsi, nous avons confirmé chez l homme in vitro et in vivo, le rôle de support séquentiel des macrophages au cours de la régénération musculaire. De plus, nous avons identifié différents effecteurs sécrétés par les macrophages M1 et M2 impliqués dans la régulation du processus myogénique chez l'adulte. Nous avons également montré que lors des myopathies dégénératives et au cours de la régénération musculaire, les macrophages adoptent un phénotype et des fonctions totalement différents, avec notamment un rôle profibrotique des macrophages pro-inflammatoires.Skeletal muscle has the ability to regenerate after a chemical or physical injury thanks to satellite cells, the muscle stem cells. After damage, satellite cells proliferate, differentiate and fused to reform muscle. Myogenic cells are not the only on cells involved. Previous studies in the laboratory showed that, in mice, macrophages are crucial for skeletal muscle regeneration. Soon after an injury, macrophages infiltrate damaged muscle and differentiate into Ly6Cpos pro-inflammatory (M1) macrophages. They stimulate proliferation of myoblasts and inhibit their fusion. Then, pro-inflammatory macrophages skew towards a Ly6Cneg anti-inflammatory phenotype (M2). Anti-inflammatory macrophages stimulate differentiation of myoblasts and protect them from apoptosis. Thus, depending on their phenotype, macrophages exert sequential trophic roles on myoblasts throughout muscle regeneration. Here, we showed in vitro that human macrophages also support different steps of myogenesis. M1 macrophages are strongly attracted by mpcs. Moreover, they secrete molecules, which stimulate proliferation of mpcs and inhibit their fusion. M2 macrophages attract mpcs and stimulate differentiation of mpcs in order to form large myotubes. Using specific blocking antibodies, we identified molecules involved in the regulation of myogenesis by M1 and M2 macrophages in a human in vitro system. In vivo analysis of regenerating human muscle sections confirmed our results obtained in vitro. M1 macrophages are preferentially associated with proliferating myogenic cells while M2 macrophages are associated with differentiating myogenic cells. In degenerative myopathies, we showed that macrophages are completely different from those present during skeletal muscle regeneration. We observed in mouse and human that M1 marker-expressing macrophages are associated with fibrosis while anti-inflammatory treatment reduced this population, in association with an improvement of the dystrophic muscle. Isolated Ly6Cneg macrophages exhibit a mixed M1/M2 phenotype. In ex-vivo coculture experiments, we showed that Ly6Cpos macrophages strongly favor establishment of fibrosis by directly acting on fibroblasts while in regenerating muscle, these Ly6Cpos macrophages negatively regulate fibrosis. To resume, we confirm in human the supportive sequential roles of macrophages during skeletal muscle regeneration in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we identified effectors secreted by M1 and M2 macrophages involved in the regulation of the myogenic process. We also highlight that during muscle regeneration and in degenerative myopathies, macrophages exhibit different phenotype associated with opposite functions, with a pro-fibrotic role for pro-inflammatory macrophages.PARIS5-Bibliotheque electronique (751069902) / SudocSudocFranceF

Efferocytosis during Skeletal Muscle Regeneration

Efferocytosis, i.e., engulfment of dead cells by macrophages, is a crucial step during tissue repair after an injury. Efferocytosis delineates the transition from the pro-inflammatory phase of the inflammatory response to the recovery phase that ensures tissue reconstruction. We present here the role of efferocytosis during skeletal muscle regeneration, which is a paradigm of sterile tissue injury followed by a complete regeneration. We present the molecular mechanisms that have been described to control this process, and particularly the metabolic control of efferocytosis during skeletal muscle regeneration