Modulation of dendritic cell functions by Staphylococcus aureus phenol-soluble modulin peptides

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is an important human pathogen that causes severe diseases ranging from local to systemic infections. Community-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus (CA-MRSA) strains are highly resistant to antibiotic treatment and are the most dangerous and pathogenic strains due to their secretion of a variety of virulence factors, enabling efficient evasion of the host immune response. Phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) peptides comprise one group of secreted virulence factors that contribute to the pathogenicity of CA-MRSA. These peptides modulate various types of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs), which are a class of professional antigen-presenting cells that link innate and adaptive immunity. Our group previously showed that PSMs in combination with a TLR2 ligand induce tolerogenic DCs, as identified by diminished clathrin-mediated endocytosis and a modulated cytokine secretion profile characterized by anti-inflammatory IL-10, ultimately leading to impaired T cell differentiation. PSMs induce regulatory T cell (Treg) priming by DCs and, in contrast, inhibit T helper 1 cell development. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remained elusive. Within this work, we addressed the following questions: (1) Which signaling pathways are modulated by PSMs leading to the increased production of IL-10 by DCs upon TLR2 ligand treatment? (2) Are the activated signaling pathways involved in the priming of Tregs by PSM-treated DCs? (3) Are PSMs actively internalized by DCs or are they acting by binding to the formyl-peptide receptor 2 (FPR2)? (4) Do PSMs in general affect DC functions, including maturation, cytokine production and T cell priming, upon treatment with various TLR ligands? (1) In this study, we demonstrated that mouse bone marrow-derived DCs stimulated with PSMα3 and S. aureus cell lysate (a TLR2 ligand) had increased levels of phosphorylated ERK, p38, CREB and NF-κB. However, only the inhibition of phosphorylated p38 and downstream MSK1 prevented the secretion of IL-10 in a concentration-dependent manner. (2) In DCs, the PSM-modulated p38-CREB pathway was also responsible for the altered differentiation of T cells. Inhibition of this axis also prevented the increased priming of Tregs by PSM- and TLR2-treated DCs. (3) PSMα3 peptides modulated the p38-CREB signaling pathway independent of their receptor FPR2. PSMα peptides penetrate DCs independent of macropinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis, most likely through transient pore formation in the DC membrane. Furthermore, we observed that PSMα peptides co-localized with p38 as well as phosphorylated p38 in the cytosol of DCs. (4) PSM peptides induced a tolerogenic DC phenotype independent of the activated TLR receptor. The tolerogenic phenotyp was characterized by reduced production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12, TNF and IL-6 but increased IL-10. Moreover, the tolerogenic DCs displayed increased co-stimulatory molecule expression and an enhanced activation of Tregs by stimulation of extracellular as well as intracellular TLRs. The new scientific knowledge gained in this thesis describing the ability of secreted S. aureus PSMs to induce tolerogenic DCs by direct modulation of the p38 MAPK contributes to basic insights into the immune evasion strategies of S. aureus and to the development of possible therapeutic strategies against CA-MRSA infections in the future

Rescued Chondrogenesis of Mesenchymal Stem Cells under Interleukin 1 Challenge by Foamyviral Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist Gene Transfer

Background: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their chondrogenic differentiation have been extensively investigated in vitro as MSCs provide an attractive source besides chondrocytes for cartilage repair therapies. Here we established prototype foamyviral vectors (FVV) that are derived from apathogenic parent viruses and are characterized by a broad host range and a favorable integration pattern into the cellular genome. As the inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1 beta (IL1β) is frequently present in diseased joints, the protective effects of FVV expressing the human interleukin 1 receptor antagonist protein (IL1RA) were studied in an established in vitro model (aggregate culture system) of chondrogenesis in the presence of IL1β.Materials and Methods: We generated different recombinant FVVs encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) or IL1RA and examined their transduction efficiencies and transgene expression profiles using different cell lines and human primary MSCs derived from bone marrow-aspirates. Transgene expression was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy (EGFP), flow cytometry (EGFP), and ELISA (IL1RA). For evaluation of the functionality of the IL1RA transgene to block the inhibitory effects of IL1β on chondrogenesis of primary MSCs and an immortalized MSC cell line (TERT4 cells), the cells were maintained following transduction as aggregate cultures in standard chondrogenic media in the presence or absence of IL1β. After 3 weeks of culture, pellets were harvested and analyzed by histology and immunohistochemistry for chondrogenic phenotypes.Results: The different FVV efficiently transduced cell lines as well as primary MSCs, thereby reaching high transgene expression levels in 6-well plates with levels of around 100 ng/ml IL1RA. MSC aggregate cultures which were maintained in chondrogenic media without IL1β supplementation revealed a chondrogenic phenotype by means of strong positive staining for collagen type II and matrix proteoglycan (Alcian blue). Addition of IL1β was inhibitory to chondrogenesis in untreated control pellets. In contrast, foamyviral mediated IL1RA expression rescued the chondrogenesis in pellets cultured in the presence of IL1β. Transduced MSC pellets reached thereby very high IL1RA transgene expression levels with a peak of 1087 ng/ml after day 7, followed by a decrease to 194 ng/ml after day 21, while IL1RA concentrations of controls were permanently below 200 pg/ml.Conclusion: Our results indicate that FVV are capable of efficient gene transfer to MSCs, while reaching IL1RA transgene expression levels, that were able to efficiently block the impacts of IL1β in vitro. FVV merit further investigation as a means to study the potential as a gene transfer tool for MSC based therapies for cartilage repair

Staphylococcus aureus PSM Peptides Modulate Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells to Prime Regulatory T Cells

Staphylococcus aureus (Sa), as one of the major human pathogens, has very effective strategies to subvert the human immune system. Virulence of the emerging community-associated methicillin-resistant Sa (CA-MRSA) depends on the secretion of phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) peptide toxins e.g., by binding to and modulation of innate immune cells. Previously, by using mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells we demonstrated that PSMs in combination with various Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands induce a tolerogenic DC phenotype (tDC) characterized by the production of IL-10 and impaired secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Consequently, PSM-induced tDCs favored priming of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ Tregs with suppressor function while impairing the Th1 response. However, the relevance of these findings for the human system remained elusive. Here, we analyzed the impact of PSMα3 on the maturation, cytokine production, antigen uptake, and T cell stimulatory capacity of human monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) treated simultaneously with either LPS (TLR4 ligand) or Sa cell lysate (TLR2 ligand). Herein, we demonstrate that PSMs indeed modulate human moDCs upon treatment with TLR2/4 ligands via multiple mechanisms, such as transient pore formation, impaired DC maturation, inhibited pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine secretion, as well as reduced antigen uptake. As a result, the adaptive immune response was altered shown by an increased differentiation of naïve and even CD4+ T cells from patients with Th1/Th17-induced diseases (spondyloarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis) into CD4+CD127−CD25hiCD45RA−FoxP3hi regulatory T cells (Tregs) with suppressor function. This Treg induction was mediated most predominantly by direct DC-T-cell interaction. Thus, PSMs from highly virulent Sa strains affect DC functions not only in the mouse, but also in the human system, thereby modulating the adaptive immune response and probably increasing the tolerance toward the bacteria. Moreover, PSMα3 might be a novel peptide for tolerogenic DC induction that may be used for DC vaccination strategies

PSM Peptides From Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Impair the Adaptive Immune Response via Modulation of Dendritic Cell Subsets in vivo

Dendritic cells (DCs) are key players of the immune system and thus a target for immune evasion by pathogens. We recently showed that the virulence factors phenol-soluble-modulins (PSMs) produced by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) strains induce tolerogenic DCs upon Toll-like receptor activation via the p38-CREB-IL-10 pathway in vitro. Here, we addressed the hypothesis that S. aureus PSMs disturb the adaptive immune response via modulation of DC subsets in vivo. Using a systemic mouse infection model we found that S. aureus reduced the numbers of splenic DC subsets, mainly CD4+ and CD8+ DCs independently of PSM secretion. S. aureus infection induced upregulation of the C-C motif chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) on the surface of all DC subsets, on CD4+ DCs in a PSM-dependent manner, together with increased expression of MHCII, CD86, CD80, CD40, and the co-inhibitory molecule PD-L2, with only minor effects of PSMs. Moreover, PSMs increased IL-10 production in the spleen and impaired TNF production by CD4+ DCs. Besides, S. aureus PSMs reduced the number of CD4+ T cells in the spleen, whereas CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) were increased. In contrast, Th1 and Th17 priming and IFN-γ production by CD8+ T cells were impaired by S. aureus PSMs. Thus, PSMs from highly virulent S. aureus strains modulate the adaptive immune response in the direction of tolerance by affecting DC functions

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Phenotypes Associated With Eradication Failure in Children With Cystic Fibrosis

Background. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a key respiratory pathogen in people with cystic fibrosis (CF). Due to its association with lung disease progression, initial detection of P. aeruginosa in CF respiratory cultures usually results in antibiotic treatment with the goal of eradication. Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibits many different phenotypes in vitro that could serve as useful prognostic markers, but the relative relationships between these phenotypes and failure to eradicate P. aeruginosa have not been well characterized

The diversity and evolution of pollination systems in large plant clades: Apocynaceae as a case study

Background and Aims Large clades of angiosperms are often characterized by diverse interactions with pollinators, but how these pollination systems are structured phylogenetically and biogeographically is still uncertain for most families. Apocynaceae is a clade of >5300 species with a worldwide distribution. A database representing >10 % of species in the family was used to explore the diversity of pollinators and evolutionary shifts in pollination systems across major clades and regions. Methods The database was compiled from published and unpublished reports. Plants were categorized into broad pollination systems and then subdivided to include bimodal systems. These were mapped against the five major divisions of the family, and against the smaller clades. Finally, pollination systems were mapped onto a phylogenetic reconstruction that included those species for which sequence data are available, and transition rates between pollination systems were calculated. Key Results Most Apocynaceae are insect pollinated with few records of bird pollination. Almost three-quarters of species are pollinated by a single higher taxon (e.g. flies or moths); 7 % have bimodal pollination systems, whilst the remaining approx. 20 % are insect generalists. The less phenotypically specialized flowers of the Rauvolfioids are pollinated by a more restricted set of pollinators than are more complex flowers within the Apocynoids + Periplocoideae + Secamonoideae + Asclepiadoideae (APSA) clade. Certain combinations of bimodal pollination systems are more common than others. Some pollination systems are missing from particular regions, whilst others are over-represented. Conclusions Within Apocynaceae, interactions with pollinators are highly structured both phylogenetically and biogeographically. Variation in transition rates between pollination systems suggest constraints on their evolution, whereas regional differences point to environmental effects such as filtering of certain pollinators from habitats. This is the most extensive analysis of its type so far attempted and gives important insights into the diversity and evolution of pollination systems in large clades

Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome

The sequence of the human genome encodes the genetic instructions for human physiology, as well as rich information about human evolution. In 2001, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium reported a draft sequence of the euchromatic portion of the human genome. Since then, the international collaboration has worked to convert this draft into a genome sequence with high accuracy and nearly complete coverage. Here, we report the result of this finishing process. The current genome sequence (Build 35) contains 2.85 billion nucleotides interrupted by only 341 gaps. It covers ∼99% of the euchromatic genome and is accurate to an error rate of ∼1 event per 100,000 bases. Many of the remaining euchromatic gaps are associated with segmental duplications and will require focused work with new methods. The near-complete sequence, the first for a vertebrate, greatly improves the precision of biological analyses of the human genome including studies of gene number, birth and death. Notably, the human enome seems to encode only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The genome sequence reported here should serve as a firm foundation for biomedical research in the decades ahead

Gene therapy of rheumatoid arthritis with foamyviral vectors

Die rheumatoide Arthritis (RA) ist eine Autoimmunerkrankung, die durch anhaltende Gelenksentzündungen gekennzeichnet ist und mit einer fortschreitenden Degradierung des Knorpels und Knochen einhergeht. Ungefähr 2 % der erwachsenen Bevölkerung weltweit sind betroffen und leiden unter erheblichen Gelenkschmerzen und Beeinträchtigungen. Der intraartikuläre Transfer anti-entzündlicher Gene (z.B. des Interleukin-1 Rezeptorantagonisten – IL1RA) zeigte signifikante Bedeutung in präklinischen und Phase-I klinischen Studien der RA Therapie. Die meisten dieser Studien verwendeten MLV-basierte orthoretrovirale Vektoren für eine stabile Transgenexpression, tragen aber das Risiko der Insertionsmutagenese. Wir haben foamyvirale Vektoren (FVV) etabliert, welche von apathogenen Elternviren abgeleitet sind und sich durch ein breites Wirtsspektrum und ein vorteilhaftes Integrationsmuster ins zelluläre Genom auszeichnen. In dieser Arbeit wurden IL1RA exprimierende prototypische foamyvirale Vektoren (PFV) generiert, deren chondroprotektives Potential in vitro und in einem indirekten Gentransferansatz in Kniegelenken von Wistar und athymischen Nacktratten in vivo evaluiert wurde. PFV Vektoren mit der kodierenden Sequenz für den humanen IL1RA, einer internen ribosomalen Eintrittsstelle (IRES) und EGFP wurden generiert und mit Verwendung eines Vier-Plasmidsystem, bestehend aus dem Vektorplasmid (IL1RA-IRES-EGFP) und den Expressionsplasmiden FV-gag, FV-pol und FV-env in 293T Zellen produziert. Ebenso wurden Kontrollvektoren welche nur EGFP exprimieren generiert. Transduktionsexperimente wurden mit primären humanen mesenchymalen Stammzellen (MSZ) aus Knochenmarkaspiraten, der Tert-4 mesenchymalen Stammzelllinie, HT1080 Fibroblasten und primären Ratten Synovialfibroblasten durchgeführt. Die Transgenexpression wurde mittels Fluoreszenzmikroskopie (EGFP), ELISA (IL1RA) und quantitativer Real-Time PCR (IL1RA) evaluiert. Die Funktionalität des IL1RA-Proteins wurde mit einem Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) Assay gezeigt. Dazu wurden FV.IL1RA transduzierte Tert-4 Zellen und unbehandelte Zellen mit 10 ng/ml IL1 inkubiert. Als readout für die IL1-Stimulation dienten die PGE2 Mengen in den konditionierten Medien. Die Zellkulturüberstände wurden 48 h nach IL1-Gabe auf ihren PGE2 und IL1RA Gehalt hin untersucht. Die PGE2 Menge war dabei, im Vergleich zu den unbehandelten Kontrollen, in den FV.IL1RA transduzierten Zellen signifikant erniedrigt. Nach der Transplantation von foamyviral transduzierten Synovialfibroblasten in Kniegelenke von Wistar und athymischen Nacktratten, war die intraartikuläre (i.a.) Transgenexpression in den Wistar Ratten zunächst hoch, fiel jedoch nach ungefähr 3 Wochen ab. Im Gegensatz dazu war die foamyviral vermittelte IL1RA-Expression in den immundefizienten Ratten für 12 Wochen auf sehr hohen Leveln stabil. Ein Maximum wurde an Tag 10 nach i.a. Transplantation mit ca. 450 ng pro Gelenk erreicht. Untersuchungen zur Biodistribution zeigten keine extraartikuläre Transgenexpression in allen untersuchten Organen (Gehirn, Herz, Lunge, Leber, Niere, Milz, Gonaden und Serum). Diese Resultate, zusammen mit dem Ausbleiben von sekundären Erkrankungen, wie bspw. Tumoren, in allen behandelten Tieren, sprechen für die Sicherheit des Ansatzes. Die Arbeit zeigt, dass FVV verwendet werden können, um primäre Synovialfibroblasten und MSZ effizient mit Markergenen und dem anti-entzündlichen IL1RA Transgen zu transduzieren. Die dabei erzielten Transgenlevel sind in der Lage, die Effekte von hochdosiertem IL1 zu blockieren. Die Ergebnisse sprechen dafür, dass FVV sehr effiziente Werkzeuge für den ex vivo Gentransfer sind und unterstreichen ihr großes Potential für die Bereitstellung anti-entzündlicher Transgene in primären Zellen und Geweben. Zukünftig soll diese Technologie in Tiermodellen der Arthritis angewendet werden. Das Fernziel der Arbeiten besteht in der Etablierung und Evaluierung eines Gentransfersystems, welches die in vivo Applikation am Menschen erlaubt.Rheuamtoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease with persistent joint inflammation that results in progressive degradation of cartilage and bone. Approximately 2 % of the adult population worldwide are estimated to be affected by RA and suffer from substantial joint pain and disability. The intra-articular transfer of anti-inflammatory genes (e.g. interleukin receptor antagonist protein – IL1RA) showed significant impact in preclinical and early phase clinical trials for RA therapy. Most of these studies used MLV-based orthoretroviral vectors for stable transgene expression, but carry the risk of insertional mutagenesis. We have established foamyviral vectors (FVV) that are derived from apathogenic parent viruses and are characterized by a broad host range and a favourable integration pattern into the cellular genome. Here we used prototype foamyvirus vectors (PFV) that expressed IL1RA and evaluated their protective effects in vitro and in an indirect gene transfer approach in knee joints of Wistar and athymic nude rats in vivo. PFV vectors carrying the coding sequence of the human IL1RA gene, along with EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) linked via an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES), were generated and produced by using a four-plasmid system consisting of the vector plasmid (IL1RA-IRES-EGFP) and the expression plasmids FV-gag, FV-pol and FV-env in 293T cells. Control vectors were also generated that expressed EGFP only. Transduction experiments were performed with different cells including human primary mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) derived from bone marrow-aspirates, the Tert-4 mesenchymal stem cell line, the HT1080 fibroblast cell line and primary rat synovial fibroblasts. The transgene expression was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy (EGFP), flow cytometry (EGFP), ELISA (IL1RA) and realtime polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (IL1RA). Functionality of the IL1RA protein was shown by using a Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) Assay. For this, FV.IL1RA transduced Tert-4 cells and untreated Tert-4 cells were incubated with 10 ng/ml IL1. As a readout for the IL1 stimulation, levels of PGE2 in conditioned media were determined. Cell culture supernatants were assayed 48 hours later for their PGE2 and IL1RA levels. The PGE2 levels were statistically significantly lower in the FV.IL1RA transduced cells in comparison to untreated controls. After the transplantation of foamyviral-transduced synovial fibroblasts in knee joints of Wistar and athymic nude rats, the intra-articular transgene expression in Wistar rats was initially high and declined after approximately 3 weeks. In contrast, foamyviral-mediated expression of human IL1RA was found to persist for at least 12 weeks at very high levels in immunocompromised rats, with a maximun value of approximately 450 ng human IL1RA per joint at day 10 after intra-articular transplantation. Biodistribution experiments were also performed and revealed the absence of extra-articular transgene expression in all organs analyzed (brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, spleen, gonad and serum). This finding, along with the nonappearance of secondary disorders such as tumors in all animals treated, argue for the safety of the approach. Here we show that FV vectors can be used to efficiently transduce primary synovial fibroblasts as well as primary MSCs with marker genes as well as the anti-inflammatory IL1RA transgene at levels that were functional to block the effects of high doses of IL1. The results indicate that FV vectors are very efficient tools for ex vivo gene transfer and underscore their high value for delivering antiinflammatory transgenes to primary cells and tissues. In future experiments we aim to apply this technology in animal models of disease. The ultimate goal of this research is the establishment and evaluation of a gene transfer system that allows the application in humans

Advances in RNA Vaccines for Preventive Indications: A Case Study of a Vaccine against Rabies

There is a global need for effective and affordable rabies vaccines, which is unmet by current vaccines due to limitations in their production capacities, required administration schedules, storage requirements, and cost. Many different experimental approaches previously used for bacterial and viral vaccines have been applied to rabies, but with variable success. One of the most promising new concepts is the use of messenger RNA (mRNA) in encoding the main rabies virus antigen, the envelope glycoprotein (RABV-G). CureVac has applied their proprietary technology platform for the production of mRNA to this problem, resulting in the rabies vaccine candidate CV7201. Following preclinical studies in mice and pigs showing that CV7201 could induce neutralizing immune responses that protected against rabies virus, different dosages and routes of administration of CV7201 were tested in a phase 1 human study. This clinical study proved that mRNA vaccination was safe and had an acceptable reactogenicity profile, but immune responses depended on the mode of administration, and they did not unequivocally support CV7201 for further development as a prophylactic vaccine with this particular formulation. Further, preclinical studies using RABV-G mRNA encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) showed an improved response in both mice and nonhuman primates, and these encouraging results are currently being followed up in clinical studies in humans. This review summarizes the recent advances in mRNA vaccines against rabies