Visits to primary care physicians among persons who inject drugs at high risk of hepatitis C virus infection: room for improvement

The role of primary care physicians (PCP) in hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevention is increasingly emphasized. Yet, little is known about the patterns of contacts with PCP among persons who inject drugs (PWID). We sought to assess the 6-month prevalence of PCP visiting among PWID at risk of HCV infection and to explore the associated factors. Baseline data were collected from HCV-seronegative PWID recruited in HEPCO, an observational Hepatitis Cohort study (2004-2011) in Montreal, Canada. An interviewer-administered questionnaire elicited information on socio-demographic factors, drug use patterns and healthcare services utilization. Blood samples were tested for HCV antibodies. Using the Gelberg-Andersen Behavioral Model, hierarchical logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify predisposing, need and enabling factors associated with PCP visiting. Of the 349 participants (mean age = 34; 80.8% male), 32.1% reported visiting a PCP. In the multivariate model, among predisposing factors, male gender [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.45 (0.25-0.83)], chronic homelessness [AOR = 0.08 (0.01-0.67)], cocaine injection [AOR = 0.46 (0.28-0.76)] and reporting greater illegal or semi-legal income [AOR = 0.48 (0.27-0.85)] were negatively associated with PCP visits. Markers of need were not associated with the outcome. Among enabling factors, contact with street nurses [AOR = 3.86 (1.49-9.90)] and food banks [AOR = 2.01 (1.20-3.37)] was positively associated with PCP visiting. Only one third of participating PWID reported a recent visit to a PCP. While a host of predisposing factors seems to hamper timely contacts with PCP among high-risk PWID, community-based support services may play an important role in initiating dialogue with primary healthcare services in this population

Associations of substance use patterns with attempted suicide among persons who inject drugs: Can distinct use patterns play a role?

Background: While the elevated risk of suicide attempt among persons who inject drugs (PWID) is well documented, whether use of different substances is associated with varying degrees of risk remains unclear. We sought to examine the associations between substance use patterns and attempted suicide in a prospective cohort of PWID in Montreal, Canada. Methods: Between 2004 and 2011, participants completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire eliciting information on socio-demographic, substance use patterns, related behaviors, and mental health markers. Generalized estimating equations were used to model the relationship between self-reported use of six common substances (cocaine, amphetamine, opioids, sedative-hypnotics, cannabis and alcohol), associated patterns of use (chronic, occasional and none), and a recent (past six-month) suicide attempt. Results: At baseline, of 1,240 participants (median age: 39.1, 83.7% male), 71 (5.7%) reported a recent suicide attempt. Among 5,621 observations collected during follow-up, 221 attempts were reported by 143 (11.5%) participants. In multivariate analyses adjusting for socio-demographic and psychosocial stressors, among primary drugs of abuse, chronic [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 1.97] and occasional (AOR: 1.92) cocaine use, and chronic amphetamine use (AOR: 1.96) were independently associated with attempted suicide. Among co-used substances, chronic sedative-hypnotic use was independently associated with an attempt (AOR: 2.29). No statistically significant association was found for the remaining substances. Conclusion: Among PWID at high risk of attempted suicide, stimulant users appear to constitute a particularly vulnerable sub-group. While the mechanisms underlying these associations remain to be elucidated, findings suggest that stimulant-using PWID should constitute a prime focus of suicide prevention efforts

Portraying persons who inject drugs recently infected with hepatitis C accessing antiviral treatment : a cluster analysis

Objectives. To empirically determine a categorization of people who inject drug (PWIDs) recently infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), in order to identify profiles most likely associated with early HCV treatment uptake. Methods.The study population was composed of HIV-negative PWIDs with a documented recent HCV infection. Eligibility criteria included being 18 years old or over, and having injected drugs in the previous 6 months preceding the estimated date of HCV exposure. Participant classification was carried out using a TwoStep cluster analysis. Results. FromSeptember 2007 to December 2011, 76 participants were included in the study. 60 participants were eligible for HCV treatment. Twenty-one participants initiated HCV treatment.The cluster analysis yielded 4 classes: class 1: Lukewarm health seekers dismissing HCV treatment offer; class 2: multisubstance users willing to shake off the hell; class 3: PWIDs unlinked to health service use; class 4: health seeker PWIDs willing to reverse the fate. Conclusion. Profiles generated by our analysis suggest that prior health care utilization, a key element for treatment uptake, differs between older and younger PWIDs. Such profiles could inform the development of targeted strategies to improve health outcomes and reduce HCV infection among PWIDs

Hepatitis C Virus seroconversion among persons who inject drugs in relation to primary care physician visiting: The potential role of primary healthcare in a combined approach to Hepatitis C prevention

Background: Meaningful reductions in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) transmission rates among persons who inject drugs (PWID) require a comprehensive prevention approach, including access to harm reduction measures and to healthcare-related interventions, such as HCV screening, testing and antiviral treatment. Little is known, however, about the role of visiting a primary care physician (PCP) in relation to HCV infection risk among PWID, when integrated within a combined prevention approach. This study assessed the association between PCP visiting and HCV seroconversion among PWID attending needle exchange programs (NEP). Methods: A prospective cohort study, HEPCO, was conducted among active PWID in Montréal (2004-2013). Interviews scheduled at three- or six-month intervals included completion of an interviewer-administered questionnaire, and collection of blood samples for HCV antibody testing. HCV-seronegative participants who reported NEP attendance at baseline and had at least one follow-up visit were eligible for this study. HCV incidence was calculated using the person-time method. Time-varying Cox regression modeling was conducted to evaluate the relationship between self-reported recent PCP visiting and HCV incidence. Results: At baseline assessment, of 226 participants (80.5% male; median age: 30.6 years), 37.2% reported having recently visited a PCP. During 449.6 person-years of follow-up, 79 participants seroconverted to HCV [incidence rate: 17.6 per 100 person-years, 95% confidence interval (CI): 14.0-21.8]. Covariate-adjusted analyses indicated that visiting a PCP was associated with a lower risk of HCV infection [Adjusted Hazard Ratio: 0.54, 95% CI: 0.31-0.93]. Other independent predictors of HCV infection included unstable housing, cocaine injection and prescription opioid injection. Conclusion: Among PWID attending NEP, visiting a PCP was associated with a lower risk of HCV infection. Yet, only a minority of participants reported PCP visiting. Efforts to intensify engagement with PCP among PWID could potentially contribute to lower HCV transmission when integrated within a combined approach to prevention

Homelessness, unstable housing, and risk of HIV and hepatitis C virus acquisition among people who inject drugs: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: People who inject drugs (PWID) are at increased risk for HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and also have high levels of homelessness and unstable housing. We assessed whether homelessness or unstable housing is associated with an increased risk of HIV or HCV acquisition among PWID compared with PWID who are not homeless or are stably housed. Methods: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we updated an existing database of HIV and HCV incidence studies published between Jan 1, 2000, and June 13, 2017. Using the same strategy as for this existing database, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO for studies, including conference abstracts, published between June 13, 2017, and Sept 14, 2020, that estimated HIV or HCV incidence, or both, among community-recruited PWID. We only included studies reporting original results without restrictions to study design or language. We contacted authors of studies that reported HIV or HCV incidence, or both, but did not report on an association with homelessness or unstable housing, to request crude data and, where possible, adjusted effect estimates. We extracted effect estimates and pooled data using random-effects meta-analyses to quantify the associations between recent (current or within the past year) homelessness or unstable housing compared with not recent homelessness or unstable housing, and risk of HIV or HCV acquisition. We assessed risk of bias using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and between-study heterogeneity using the I2 statistic and p value for heterogeneity. Findings: We identified 14 351 references in our database search, of which 392 were subjected to full-text review alongside 277 studies from our existing database. Of these studies, 55 studies met inclusion criteria. We contacted the authors of 227 studies that reported HIV or HCV incidence in PWID but did not report association with the exposure of interest and obtained 48 unpublished estimates from 21 studies. After removal of duplicate data, we included 37 studies with 70 estimates (26 for HIV; 44 for HCV). Studies originated from 16 countries including in North America, Europe, Australia, east Africa, and Asia. Pooling unadjusted estimates, recent homelessness or unstable housing was associated with an increased risk of acquiring HIV (crude relative risk [cRR] 1·55 [95% CI 1·23–1·95; p=0·0002]; I2= 62·7%; n=17) and HCV (1·65 [1·44–1·90; p<0·0001]; I2= 44·8%; n=28]) among PWID compared with those who were not homeless or were stably housed. Associations for both HIV and HCV persisted when pooling adjusted estimates (adjusted relative risk for HIV: 1·39 [95% CI 1·06–1·84; p=0·019]; I2= 65·5%; n=9; and for HCV: 1·64 [1·43–1·89; p<0·0001]; I2= 9·6%; n=14). For risk of HIV acquisition, the association for unstable housing (cRR 1·82 [1·13–2·95; p=0·014]; n=5) was higher than for homelessness (1·44 [1·13–1·83; p=0·0036]; n=12), whereas no difference was seen between these outcomes for risk of HCV acquisition (1·72 [1·48–1·99; p<0·0001] for unstable housing, 1·66 [1·37–2·00; p<0·0001] for homelessness). Interpretation: Homelessness and unstable housing are associated with increased risk of HIV and HCV acquisition among PWID. Our findings support the development of interventions that simultaneously address homelessness and unstable housing and HIV and HCV transmission in this population

Examining the impact of healthcare and harm reduction services on drug use and hepatitis C virus infection risk among people who inject drugs

L’infection par le virus de l’hépatite C (VHC) est l’un des principaux problèmes de santé publique chez les utilisateurs de drogues injectables (UDI). Actuellement, plusieurs outils sont disponibles pour réduire le fardeau du VHC dans cette population. Ceux-ci incluent des programmes de réduction des méfaits, tels que le traitement par un opioïde agoniste (TAO), pouvant réduire le risque d'infection par le VHC, ainsi que des traitements antiviraux extrêmement efficaces pour éradiquer le virus parmi les infectés. Plus récemment, il y a eu un intérêt national et international à éliminer le VHC en tant que menace pour la santé publique d'ici 2030, tout en priorisant les UDI dans les efforts de prévention et traitement. Parallèlement à ce mouvement, plus globalement, le fardeau des méfaits liés aux pratiques d’injection chez les UDI, tels que la surdose, soulignent la nécessité d’adopter une vision plus large sur leur santé. Dans l’ensemble, cette thèse vise à combler certaines lacunes dans les connaissances vis-à-vis de l’élimination du VHC chez les UDI. Premièrement, puisque le lien entre l’adéquation du dosage des TAO et le risque d’infection au VHC est peu connu, j’examine cette relation dans un échantillon d’UDI suivis dans la cohorte HEPCO à Montréal. Les résultats indiquent que le risque d'infection par le VHC ne serait pas systématiquement réduit chez toutes les personnes recevant des TAO, mais plutôt que ce risque varie en fonction de la dose prescrite et de l’adéquation du dosage telle que perçue par le patient. Ces résultats soulignent qu’un élargissement de l'accès aux TAO ne serait pas suffisant pour atteindre les objectifs de prévention et d'élimination du VHC, et que l’adéquation du dosage devrait être prise en compte dans le cadre de nos efforts de prévention. Deuxièmement, l’accès aux traitements antiviraux est faible chez les UDI, en partie à cause des préoccupations des prestataires et des décideurs politiques qui craignent une augmentation de la consommation de drogues et des comportements à risque après le traitement. En capitalisant sur deux études différentes - la cohorte IMPACT à Montréal et les essais SIMPLIFY / D3FEAT menés dans plusieurs pays - je montre que les comportements liés à la drogue diminuent ou restent stables après le traitement du VHC. Ensemble, ces deux études suggèrent que les préoccupations liées à une consommation élevée de drogue ou à une hausse des comportements à risque après le traitement ne seraient pas fondées. Ainsi, ces résultats appuient davantage une augmentation de l’accès au traitement chez les UDI. Troisièmement, allant au-delà du VHC en tant que problématique principale, en capitalisant une fois de plus sur les données collectées dans HEPCO, j’examine les associations entre trois facteurs - le TAO, le logement et le revenu - et la fréquence d’injection chez les UDI. Puisque la consommation de drogues est dynamique dans le temps, j'examine dans quelle mesure ces trois facteurs sont liés à la fréquence d’injection chez des UDI ayant des trajectoires d’injection variées. Nos résultats indiquent que la stabilité socioéconomique et le TAO seraient systématiquement liés à une fréquence d'injection inférieure chez les UDI, quelles que soit leurs trajectoires d’injection sous-jacentes. Globalement, ces résultats suggèrent qu’il y aurait des moyens de soutenir tous les UDI à atteindre de petits changements comportementaux qui pourraient réduire les risques liés aux pratiques d’injection, qu’ils soient ou non en mesure d’arrêter l’injection de drogues. En conclusion, alors que presque tous les pays ont lancé un effort mondial pour éliminer le VHC, des efforts sont nécessaires pour optimiser les programmes de réduction des méfaits bien établis afin de réduire la transmission du VHC, et d’accroître l’accès au traitement chez ceux qui sont infectés, tout en considérant les besoins et les préoccupations des communautés touchées. Cette thèse a fourni des données permettant d’éclairer (i) l’optimisation des TAO dans la prévention de la transmission du VHC, (ii) l’élargissement de l’accès au traitement du VHC et (iii) l’accès à des logements et revenus stables afin de réduire plus globalement les risques liés aux pratiques d’injection chez les UDI. Ainsi, ces résultats pourraient aider à réduire le fardeau du VHC chez les UDI et à soutenir le progrès vers l'élimination du VHC.Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one of the main public health concerns affecting people who inject drugs (PWID). Although no effective prophylactic vaccine currently exists to prevent acquisition of HCV, a number of other tools are available to curb the HCV burden among PWID. These include harm-reduction programs, such as opioid agonist treatment (OAT), which can reduce the risk of HCV infection among those susceptible, and highly effective antiviral therapies to eradicate the virus among those who are infected. In recent years, there has been national and international interest in eliminating HCV as a public health threat by 2030, prioritising PWID in prevention and treatment efforts given that they are the population most affected. In parallel to this global effort, the high prevalence of injection-related harms among PWID that are unrelated to HCV, such as overdose, highlight a need to adopt a broader view on drug user health. Overall, this thesis is concerned with addressing some of the knowledge gaps and barriers that remain to achieving HCV elimination in PWID. First, because little is known about the importance of OAT dosage in influencing the risk of HCV acquisition, I examine this relationship in a sample of PWID followed in the Hepatitis Cohort (HEPCO) in Montreal. Findings indicate that the risk of HCV infection may not be systematically reduced for everyone receiving OAT and rather, that the risk of infection varies considerably according to the level of the prescribed OAT dosage and patient-perceived dosage adequacy. These findings suggest that simply scaling-up OAT access may not be sufficient to achieving the HCV elimination goals, and that the dosage of treatment should be considered as part of prevention efforts. Second, uptake of HCV treatment is low among PWID, partly due to concerns among providers and policymakers that drug use and injection risk behaviours may increase following treatment, thereby negating the benefits of therapy. Capitalising on two different studies - the IMPACT Cohort in Montreal and the SIMPLIFY/D3FEAT trials conducted in several countries - I illustrate that drug-related behaviours decrease or remain stable following HCV treatment. Together, these two studies suggest that concerns of escalating drug use or risk behaviours following HCV treatment are unfounded, further supporting the importance of expanding access to therapy among PWID. Third, moving beyond HCV as the primary focus of research, and capitalising once more on data collected in HEPCO, I examine the associations between three factors- OAT, housing and income, and patterns of injection frequency among PWID. Recognizing that injection patterns are dynamic over time, I examine the extent to which these three factors relate to injection frequencies among PWID with diverse trajectories of injection drug use, followed over a period of 7.5 years. Our findings indicate that socioeconomic stability and OAT are consistently associated with a lower injection frequency among all PWID, irrespective of their underlying injection trajectory and whether or not they are on a path to cessation. These findings suggest that there may be ways to support PWID in making small behavioral changes that could reduce their risks of injection-related harms, irrespective of whether or not they are in a position to stop injecting. In conclusion, at a time when many countries have embarked onto a global effort to eliminate HCV, efforts are needed to ensure that well-evidenced harm-reduction programs are optimised to reduce transmission of HCV, treatment for HCV infection is scaled-up among those who are infected ,and efforts do not overlook the basic needs and concerns of affected communities. This thesis provided data to help inform (i) optimisation of OAT provision for the prevention of HCV transmission, (ii) expanded access to HCV treatment, and (iii) access to stable housing and income to reduce the risk of injection-related harms among PWID. Ultimately, findings could contribute to reducing the HCV burden among PWID, helping move towards HCV elimination and, more broadly, improving the overall health of this marginalised group

Homelessness, unstable housing, and risk of HIV and hepatitis C virus acquisition among people who inject drugs: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs (PWID) are at increased risk for HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and also have high levels of homelessness and unstable housing. We assessed whether homelessness or unstable housing is associated with an increased risk of HIV or HCV acquisition among PWID compared with PWID who are not homeless or are stably housed. METHODS: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we updated an existing database of HIV and HCV incidence studies published between Jan 1, 2000, and June 13, 2017. Using the same strategy as for this existing database, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO for studies, including conference abstracts, published between June 13, 2017, and Sept 14, 2020, that estimated HIV or HCV incidence, or both, among community-recruited PWID. We only included studies reporting original results without restrictions to study design or language. We contacted authors of studies that reported HIV or HCV incidence, or both, but did not report on an association with homelessness or unstable housing, to request crude data and, where possible, adjusted effect estimates. We extracted effect estimates and pooled data using random-effects meta-analyses to quantify the associations between recent (current or within the past year) homelessness or unstable housing compared with not recent homelessness or unstable housing, and risk of HIV or HCV acquisition. We assessed risk of bias using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and between-study heterogeneity using the I statistic and p value for heterogeneity. FINDINGS: We identified 14 351 references in our database search, of which 392 were subjected to full-text review alongside 277 studies from our existing database. Of these studies, 55 studies met inclusion criteria. We contacted the authors of 227 studies that reported HIV or HCV incidence in PWID but did not report association with the exposure of interest and obtained 48 unpublished estimates from 21 studies. After removal of duplicate data, we included 37 studies with 70 estimates (26 for HIV; 44 for HCV). Studies originated from 16 countries including in North America, Europe, Australia, east Africa, and Asia. Pooling unadjusted estimates, recent homelessness or unstable housing was associated with an increased risk of acquiring HIV (crude relative risk [cRR] 1·55 [95% CI 1·23-1·95; p=0·0002]; I= 62·7%; n=17) and HCV (1·65 [1·44-1·90; p<0·0001]; I= 44·8%; n=28]) among PWID compared with those who were not homeless or were stably housed. Associations for both HIV and HCV persisted when pooling adjusted estimates (adjusted relative risk for HIV: 1·39 [95% CI 1·06-1·84; p=0·019]; I= 65·5%; n=9; and for HCV: 1·64 [1·43-1·89; p<0·0001]; I= 9·6%; n=14). For risk of HIV acquisition, the association for unstable housing (cRR 1·82 [1·13-2·95; p=0·014]; n=5) was higher than for homelessness (1·44 [1·13-1·83; p=0·0036]; n=12), whereas no difference was seen between these outcomes for risk of HCV acquisition (1·72 [1·48-1·99; p<0·0001] for unstable housing, 1·66 [1·37-2·00; p<0·0001] for homelessness). INTERPRETATION: Homelessness and unstable housing are associated with increased risk of HIV and HCV acquisition among PWID. Our findings support the development of interventions that simultaneously address homelessness and unstable housing and HIV and HCV transmission in this population. FUNDING: National Institute for Health Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, and Commonwealth Scholarship Commission