Låsta bevis: En nyckelfråga? - En studie av krypterat material som bevismedel i brottmål

Åtkomst till bevismaterial är avgörande för att förverkliga det straffrättsliga ansvaret. Idag är en stor del av detta bevismaterial digitalt och i syfte att skydda och hemlighålla sådan information används i allt större utsträckning kryptering. Kryptering, som enklast möjligt kan sägas utgöra den digitala versionen av att låsa in material i ett kassaskåp, innebär att man utan den särskilda dekrypteringsnyckeln inte, åtminstone inte utan omfattande svårigheter, kommer åt det krypterade materialet. När en person misstänkt för brott använt sig av kryptering ställs rättsväsendet inför svåra avvägningar. Samtidigt som tillgång till informationen kan vara avgörande för utredningen i målet utgör det en grundläggande rättighet under bland annat artikel 6 EKMR att en misstänkt inte ska behöva belasta sig själv kriminellt och, med andra ord, inte behöva bidra till att material som kan användas mot honom eller henne kan kommas åt. Denna uppsats undersöker, med utgångspunkt i de två grundläggande straffprocessrättsliga principerna om å ena sidan förverkligande av det straffrättsliga ansvaret och å andra sidan skydd för individen, två huvudsakliga frågeställningar: dels om en order att den misstänkte ska dekryptera materialet kan vara förenlig med ovannämnda rättighet, dels om material som förblir krypterat ändå kan tillmätas bevisverkan. I uppsatsen argumenteras, i linje med vad som konstaterats i en tidigare studie, för att en dekrypteringsorder riktad mot en misstänkt under vissa begränsade förutsättningar kan vara förenlig med rätten att inte belasta sig själv kriminellt så som den utvecklats under artikel 6 EKMR. För att så ska vara fallet måste det dock vara fråga om brottslighet där ett starkt allmänt intresse av lagföring föreligger, endast en förhållandevis låg grad av tvång kan tillåtas och denna måste dessutom förenas med starka processuella garantier för den misstänkte. Vidare konstateras att genomdrivandet av dessa processuella garantier möter särskilda utmaningar i ett rättsystem som det svenska där såväl bevisföring som bevisvärdering är fri. Utöver dessa rättighetsaspekter finns det också praktiska svårigheter på genomförandenivå att beakta. Sammanfattningsvis bedöms därför en dekrypteringsorder riktad mot en misstänkt, trots att en sådan bör vara möjlig i vissa situationer, vara av relativt begränsat värde. Vidare konstateras att såväl krypterat som dekrypterat material passar förhållandevis väl in under den befintliga regleringen i RB, och det argumenteras för att även material som förblir krypterat i vissa fall kan komma att få bevisverkan. Vad gäller material som förblir krypterat rör det sig framförallt om den misstänktes ovilja att uttala sig om materialet som kan tillmätas oförmånlig bevisverkan, även om vissa omständigheter direkt hänförliga till det krypterade materialet också kan spela in. Sådan oförmånlig bevisverkan får endast förekomma i begränsad utsträckning och är i hög grad beroende av de andra omständigheterna i målet, så som exempelvis om viss del av materialet kunnat dekrypteras. Även om sådan oförmånlig bevisverkan kan accepteras i vissa situationer, argumenteras i denna uppsats för att det i viss mån framstår som oklart på vilket sätt det krypterade materialet i praktiken kan komma att påverka den eventuella domen mot den misstänkte.Being able to access evidence is crucial for the realisation of responsibility under criminal law. In today’s world, a large part of what can potentially be evidence is stored digitally. In order to protect and keep digital information confidential, encryption is becoming widespread. Encryption, put simply, can be said to be the digital version of locking material in a safe, and basically means that one cannot, at least not without considerable difficulty, access the material if one does not have access to the decryption key. When a suspect has encrypted material, this means that the judiciary is faced with balancing competing interests: at the same time as access to the material that potentially contains evidence is crucial, it is considered a fundamental right under, among other instruments, article 6 of the ECHR that a suspect should not have to incriminate him– or herself and, in other words, not have to contribute in order to access said material. This thesis examines, with the principle of realisation of criminal responsibility on the one hand and the principle of protection of the individual in that process on the other, two main questions: whether an order that a suspect should decrypt can be compatible with the privilege against self-incrimination and, if and to what extent material that remains encrypted can be given evidentiary value. It is argued, in line with a previous study, that a decryption order given to a suspect under certain limited circumstances can be compatible with the privilege against self-incrimination as it has developed under article 6 of the ECHR. However, for this to be the case it has to be a matter of a strong public interest, only a relatively low degree of coercion can be used and there has to be strong procedural guarantees for the suspect. These procedural guarantees will mean special challenges in a legal system like the Swedish, where both the production and evaluation of evidence is free. In addition, there are also a number of practical issues as to whether such a decryption order will have any effect. In sum, a decryption order given to a suspect, though under certain conditions possible, is therefore considered to be of a relatively limited value. Further it is argued that decrypted as well as encrypted material fits rather well into the categorization of evidence under the Swedish code of judicial procedure, and that also material that remains encrypted under certain circumstances may be given evidentiary value at trial. When this becomes relevant it is primarily the suspect’s resistance to comment on the material or explain its existence that can possibly lead to adverse inference, even though some aspects relating directly to the material itself can also become relevant. However, this can only be allowed in a limited number of situations, and is highly dependent on the other circumstances of the case. For example this could be whether any of the material has been decrypted and what it shows. Even though such evidentiary value can sometimes be acceptable, this thesis argues that it seems to remain partly unclear how the encrypted material would practically affect the trial

Entwicklungszusammenarbeit im Rahmen der Vereinten Nationen

Die Vereinten Nationen (United Nations – UN) setzten sich in ihrer Charta (Art.1) das Ziel, „internationale Probleme wirtschaftlicher, sozialer, kultureller und humanitärer Art zu lösen“. Auf dieser Grundlage sind sie seit ihrer Gründung in vielfältiger Weise entwicklungspolitisch tätig. Heute richten sich zum Teil große Erwartungen an die UN, die im Sinne von „global governance“ in diesem Bereich eine zentrale Rolle übernehmen sollen. Allerdings besitzen die UN bislang nicht die Voraussetzungen, um eine solche Rolle spielen zu können. Nicht nur die Vielzahl und die Unübersichtlichkeit der UN-Einrichtungen auf diesem Gebiet geben immer wieder Anlass zu erheblicher Kritik. Auch andere (Vor-)Urteile wie Ineffizienz und Verschwendung, Schwerfälligkeit und Politisierung gehören vielfach weiterhin zum Image der UN-Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. Hinzu kommt eine geringe finanzielle Ausstattung. Allerdings haben die Reformanstrengungen von UN-Generalsekretär Kofi Annan durchaus zu sichtbaren Erfolgen geführt. Bestehen bleiben aber die unterschiedlichen Interessen und Erwartungen der sehr heterogenen 189 UN-Mitgliedstaaten

Molecular Organisation of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a pathogenic, enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus in the family Flaviviridae. Structural studies of flavivirus virions have primarily focused on mosquito-borne species, with only one cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of a tick-borne species published. Here, we present a 3.3 Å cryo-EM structure of the TBEV virion of the Kuutsalo-14 isolate, confirming the overall organisation of the virus. We observe conformational switching of the peripheral and transmembrane helices of M protein, which can explain the quasi-equivalent packing of the viral proteins and highlights their importance in stabilising membrane protein arrangement in the virion. The residues responsible for M protein interactions are highly conserved in TBEV but not in the structurally studied Hypr strain, nor in mosquito-borne flaviviruses. These interactions may compensate for the lower number of hydrogen bonds between E proteins in TBEV compared to the mosquito-borne flaviviruses. The structure reveals two lipids bound in the E protein which are important for virus assembly. The lipid pockets are comparable to those recently described in mosquito-borne Zika, Spondweni, Dengue, and Usutu viruses. Our results thus advance the understanding of tick-borne flavivirus architecture and virion-stabilising interactions

Molecular Organisation of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a pathogenic, enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus in the family Flaviviridae. Structural studies of flavivirus virions have primarily focused on mosquito-borne species, with only one cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of a tick-borne species published. Here, we present a 3.3 Å cryo-EM structure of the TBEV virion of the Kuutsalo-14 isolate, confirming the overall organisation of the virus. We observe conformational switching of the peripheral and transmembrane helices of M protein, which can explain the quasi-equivalent packing of the viral proteins and highlights their importance in stabilising membrane protein arrangement in the virion. The residues responsible for M protein interactions are highly conserved in TBEV but not in the structurally studied Hypr strain, nor in mosquito-borne flaviviruses. These interactions may compensate for the lower number of hydrogen bonds between E proteins in TBEV compared to the mosquito-borne flaviviruses. The structure reveals two lipids bound in the E protein which are important for virus assembly. The lipid pockets are comparable to those recently described in mosquito-borne Zika, Spondweni, Dengue, and Usutu viruses. Our results thus advance the understanding of tick-borne flavivirus architecture and virion-stabilising interactions

Structures of enveloped virions determined by cryogenic electron microscopy and tomography : Advances in Virus Research

Enveloped viruses enclose their genomes inside a lipid bilayer which is decorated by membrane proteins that mediate virus entry. These viruses display a wide range of sizes, morphologies and symmetries. Spherical viruses are often isometric and their envelope proteins follow icosahedral symmetry. Filamentous and pleomorphic viruses lack such global symmetry but their surface proteins may display locally ordered assemblies. Determining the structures of enveloped viruses, including the envelope proteins and their protein-protein interactions on the viral surface, is of paramount importance. These structures can reveal how the virions are assembled and released by budding from the infected host cell, how the progeny virions infect new cells by membrane fusion, and how antibodies bind surface epitopes to block infection. In this chapter, we discuss the uses of cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) in elucidating structures of enveloped virions. Starting from a detailed outline of data collection and processing strategies, we highlight how cryo-EM has been successfully utilized to provide unique insights into enveloped virus entry, assembly, and neutralization.Peer reviewe

Echo cancellation in ADSL modems

This Master Thesis report presents a way of enhancing the performance of an ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) system by canceling out transmitter echoes that occur in the coupling between the AFE (Analog Front End) and the phone lines. This new way of canceling the transmit echoes applies to all systems where the transmitted signal can be modeled by a random noise signal. The idea is to cancel out the transmit echoes in the analog domain before the ADC (Analog Digital Converter) in order to increase the sensitivity of the receiver. With this echo canceling method the echo suppression of the transmitted signal can come close to what is theoretically possible. The development and simulations are done using a Matlab model of the AFE. To verify the model and show that the performance expectations were fulfilled the echo canceller was implemented in a real time system based on four ADSP-21160 DSPs (Digital Signal Processors) from ADI (Analog Devices). The issues involved with a migration from a simulation model to real systems are also considered.Validerat; 20101217 (root

Uukuniemi virus-like particles : a model system for bunyaviral assembly

Viruses are intracellular parasites that are unable to multiply except when inside a living cell of a host. Outside their host they remain inert. There are many different types of viruses that are classified into different virus families according to their size, nucleic acid composition (RNA or DNA), or the composition of their outer shell (naked or enveloped). Following entry, negative stranded viruses release their genome which is subsequently replicated, transcribed, and the different viral components are assembled into new virus particles, which are released from the host cell and ready to infect new cells. This thesis focuses on how the different viral parts assemble into an infectious particle inside the cell as well as on the identification of parts in the RNA genome important for viral replication. Uukuniemi virus (UUKV), a prototypic member of the Bunyaviridae family, has a segmented RNA genome with negative polarity. The three segments encode four structural proteins, two glycoproteins (GN and GC) located in the envelope, one nucleoprotein (N protein), and a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L protein). Flanking these open reading frames (ORFs) are non-coding regions (NCRs) containing cis-acting signals important for viral transcription, replication, encapsidation and packaging. These NCRs encompass one variable region, and one highly conserved region located in both the 5 and 3 terminal ends of the three segments, which are complementary to each other. To study the function of the NCRs we used a minigenome system developed for UUKV. In this system the viral protein coding sequence is replaced by sequences encoding a reporter protein. This minigenome is transfected into cells together with the N and L protein necessary for replication and transcription, after which reporter protein expression can be measured. In the first paper we studied the variable region of the NCRs and its effect on promoter strength and packaging efficiency. We performed this by comparing the activity of minigenomes that contained the NCRs derived from all three different segments. We found that the variable region is not only important for the regulation of promoter activity but also for packaging efficiency, since the three different minigenomes all showed different reporter activity. Next the assembly of the UUKV inside the cell was examined. In order to study packaging and assembly, we first developed a virus-like particle (VLP) system for UUKV. With the addition of the glycoprotein precursor encoding both glycoproteins GN and GC to the minigenome system, VLPs containing the minigenome are produced and released into the supernatant. These particles are able to infect new cells where reporter protein expression can be detected. Characterization of these VLPs revealed that they have similar size and surface morphology as wild-type UUKV. Moreover we demonstrated that only the two glycoproteins are required for generating VLPs, suggesting that UUKV budding is driven by the two glycoproteins. We further analyzed the importance of specific amino acids in the cytoplasmic tail of both glycoproteins, GN and GC, for packaging of the RNA genome into VLPs and the budding of UUKV. This was done by performing an alanine scan of the GN cytoplasmic tail (81 amino acids) and the GC cytoplasmic tail (5 amino acids), and analyzing the effect of these mutations on particle formation in our VLP system. We identified three regions in the GN tail (amino acids 21-25, 46-50 and 71-81) that are important for minigenome transfer of the VLPs. A more detailed analysis showed, four amino acids in the GN cytoplasmic tail involved in the packaging interaction with the ribonucleoproteins while two other amino acids are important for the budding into the Golgi compartment. Finally three amino acids in the GN and two in the GC cytoplasmic tail are important for the correct localization of the two glycoproteins in the cell. In conclusion, we show a mechanism of UUKV assembly and demonstrate the usefulness of our experimental system. We also postulate that the VLP system is a useful tool for analyzing packaging, assembly, and budding for other members of the Bunyavidae family

A study of a low energy house - methods for improvning energy performance while maintaining cost efficiency

  diskuterats flitigt, såväl på det nationella planet som på EU-nivå. Trenden pekar på ett byggande där allt större vikt läggs vid den byggda miljöns energiprestanda. Redan i dagsläget finns flera exempel på hus med ett mycket lågt energibehov, och antalet lågenergihus växer för varje år. I skrivande stund ligger kraven på bostäders specifika energianvändning på 110 kWh/m 2 år i Stockholm, men redan till nästa år finns förslag på att minska motsvarande siffra till 90. Energimyndigheten genomför just nu ett arbete med att tolka EU:s direktiv om så kallade Nära nollenergihus och de preliminära resultaten indikerar att kravnivån för köpt energi kommer hamna kring 55 kWh/m 2 år, vilket är i nivå med de rekommendationer som i dag återfinns i FEBY:s Kravspecifikation för Passivhus. Med utgångsläge i ett uppfört lågenergihus i Henriksdalshamnen i Stockholm har vi i arbetet analyserat olika energieffektiviserande åtgärders inverkan på effekt- och energibehov. Även de ekonomiska aspekterna förknippade med åtgärderna har studerats med hjälp av en modell för livscykelkostnader. Åtgärderna studerades inledningsvis individuellt för att ge en bild av hur stor påverkan de har var för sig. Tre åtgärdspaket sattes sedan samman, där de mest energi- och kostnadseffektiva lösningarna ingick. Det första åtgärdspaketet syftade till att ta huset till passivhusnivå, vilket uppnåddes genom byte av fönster samt en förbättring av lufttätheten. Den ekonomiska analysen visade att detta paket inte var lönsamt. Det andra åtgärdspaketet hade som mål att så mycket som möjligt sänka byggnadens energibehov och samtidigt uppvisa lönsamhet. Resultatet blev ett mer än halverat energibehov och den ekonomiska kalkylen pekade på att det även gick med vinst. Slutligen studerades möjligheten att installera energiproducerande system för att kunna ta huset till ett plusenergiutförande. Tanken var att undersöka om det var möjligt att på ett ekonomiskt försvarbart sätt täcka upp behovet av köpt energi med hjälp av sol- och vindkraft. Analysen visar att det i dagsläget skulle vara svårt att uppnå, främst på grund av de stora investeringskostnader som åtgärderna medför, samt de hinder som är förknippade med regelverken för att sälja energi.today’s recommendations found in FEBY's Kravspecifikation för Passivhus.    Abstract Energy and environmental demands regarding buildings have become an increasingly discussed topic, both in Sweden and in Europe as a whole. The general trend indicates that greater efforts are being put into the energy efficiency of the built environment. There are already numerous examples of houses with a low energy demand, and the number of low energy buildings is constantly growing. At the time being, the maximum level for energy demands for housing in Stockholm is 110 kWh/m 2 year, but as soon as next year the limit will be changed to 90. The Swedish agency Energimyndigheten is currently conducting a project to interpret the EU Directive on the so-called Nearly zero energy buildings, and the preliminary results indicate that the level of requirements for purchased energy will end up with about 55 kWh / m 2 year, which is in line with today’s recommendations found in FEBY's Kravspecifikation för Passivhus. Starting with a low-energy house in Henriksdalshamnen in Stockholm, we have analyzed various energy-efficiency measures and their influence on power and energy needs. The financial aspects associated with the measures have been studied using a model of life cycle costs. The measures were initially studied individually to give an idea of how much impact they each had. Three packages of measures were then put together, where the most energyand cost-effective solutions were included. The first package of measures aimed to achieve the standard for Passive houses, and was accomplished by the replacement of windows and an improvement in airtightness. The economic analysis showed that this package was not viable. The second package of measures aimed to as much as possible reduce the building's energy needs and at the same time demonstrate profitability. The results showed a more than halved energy demand and the economic calculations indicated that it even turned a profit. Finally, the possibility of installing energy-producing systems in order to achieve a plus energy house was studied. The idea was to examine whether it was possible to cover up the need for purchased energy by using solar and wind power, while maintaining profitability. The analysis shows that this would be difficult to achieve, primarily because of the high investment costs entailed, and the difficulties associated with the regulations regarding the sale of energy

Bibliotekssystemet på Jamaika

Föreliggande specialarbete tar upp och behandlar bibliotekssystemet på Jamaika. Upppsatsskrivarna redogör för folk-, special- och forskningsbibliotek utifrån sina egna erfarenheter under praktiktiden på Jamaika några månader vintern 1981/82. Framställningen kompletteras av ett rikt bildmaterial och frågeformulär som besvarades av bibliotekarierna vid de olika studiebesöken.Obs! Ö.h.t. dåligt tryck. Vissa sidor saknar paginering.</p