Impact of parameter variations on circuits and microarchitecture

Parameter variations, which are increasing along with advances in process technologies, affect both timing and power. Variability must be considered at both the circuit and microarchitectural design levels to keep pace with performance scaling and to keep power consumption within reasonable limits. This article presents an overview of the main sources of variability and surveys variation-tolerant circuit and microarchitectural approaches.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Charge-based quantum computing using single donors in semiconductors

Solid-state quantum computer architectures with qubits encoded using single atoms are now feasible given recent advances in atomic doping of semiconductors. Here we present a charge qubit consisting of two dopant atoms in a semiconductor crystal, one of which is singly ionised. Surface electrodes control the qubit and a radio-frequency single electron transistor provides fast readout. The calculated single gate times, of order 50ps or less, are much shorter than the expected decoherence time. We propose universal one- and two-qubit gate operations for this system and discuss prospects for fabrication and scale up.Comment: 5 pages, 4 figures, updated version submitted to Physical Review

Statistical circuit simulations - from ‘atomistic’ compact models to statistical standard cell characterisation

This thesis describes the development and application of statistical circuit simulation methodologies to analyse digital circuits subject to intrinsic parameter fluctuations. The specific nature of intrinsic parameter fluctuations are discussed, and we explain the crucial importance to the semiconductor industry of developing design tools which accurately account for their effects. Current work in the area is reviewed, and three important factors are made clear: any statistical circuit simulation methodology must be based on physically correct, predictive models of device variability; the statistical compact models describing device operation must be characterised for accurate transient analysis of circuits; analysis must be carried out on realistic circuit components. Improving on previous efforts in the field, we posit a statistical circuit simulation methodology which accounts for all three of these factors. The established 3-D Glasgow atomistic simulator is employed to predict electrical characteristics for devices aimed at digital circuit applications, with gate lengths from 35 nm to 13 nm. Using these electrical characteristics, extraction of BSIM4 compact models is carried out and their accuracy in performing transient analysis using SPICE is validated against well characterised mixed-mode TCAD simulation results for 35 nm devices. Static d.c. simulations are performed to test the methodology, and a useful analytic model to predict hard logic fault limitations on CMOS supply voltage scaling is derived as part of this work. Using our toolset, the effect of statistical variability introduced by random discrete dopants on the dynamic behaviour of inverters is studied in detail. As devices scaled, dynamic noise margin variation of an inverter is increased and higher output load or input slew rate improves the noise margins and its variation. Intrinsic delay variation based on CV/I delay metric is also compared using ION and IEFF definitions where the best estimate is obtained when considering ION and input transition time variations. Critical delay distribution of a path is also investigated where it is shown non-Gaussian. Finally, the impact of the cell input slew rate definition on the accuracy of the inverter cell timing characterisation in NLDM format is investigated

A Process Variation Tolerant Self-Compensation Sense Amplifier Design

As we move under the aegis of the Moore\u27s law, we have to deal with its darker side with problems like leakage and short channel effects. Once we go beyond 45nm regime process variations also have emerged as a significant design concern.Embedded memories uses sense amplifier for fast sensing and typically, sense amplifiers uses pair of matched transistors in a positive feedback environment. A small difference in voltage level of applied input signals to these matched transistors is amplified and the resulting logic signals are latched. Intra die variation causes mismatch between the sense transistors that should ideally be identical structures. Yield loss due to device and process variations has never been so critical to cause failure in circuits. Due to growth in size of embedded SRAMs as well as usage of sense amplifier based signaling techniques, process variations in sense amplifiers leads to significant loss of yield for that we need to come up with process variation tolerant circuit styles and new devices. In this work impact of transistor mismatch due to process variations on sense amplifier is evaluated and this problem is stated. For the solution of the problem a novel self compensation scheme on sense amplifiers is presented on different technology nodes up to 32nm on conventional bulk MOSFET technology. Our results show that the self compensation technique in the conventional bulk MOSFET latch type sense amplifier not just gives improvement in the yield but also leads to improvement in performance for latch type sense amplifiers. Lithography related CD variations, fluctuations in dopant density, oxide thickness and parametric variations of devices are identified as a major challenge to the classical bulk type MOSFET. With the emerging nanoscale devices, SIA roadmap identifies FinFETs as a candidate for post-planar end-of-roadmap CMOS device. With current technology scaling issues and with conventional bulk type MOSFET on 32nm node our technique can easily be applied to Double Gate devices. In this work, we also develop the model of Double Gate MOSFET through 3D Device Simulator Damocles and TCAD simulator. We propose a FinFET based process variation tolerant sense amplifier design that exploits the back gate of FinFET devices for dynamic compensation against process variations. Results from statistical simulation show that the proposed dynamic compensation is highly effective in restoring yield at a level comparable to that of sense amplifiers without process variations. We created the 32nm double gate models generated from Damocles 3-D device simulations [25] and Taurus Device Simulator available commercially from Synopsys [47] and use them in the nominal latch type sense amplifier design and on the Independent Gate Self Compensation Sense Amplifier Design (IGSSA) to compare the yield and performance benefits of sense amplifier design on FinFET technology over the conventional bulk type CMOS based sense amplifier on 32nm technology node effective in restoring yield at a level comparable to that of sense amplifiers without process variations. We created the 32nm double gate models generated from Damocles 3-D device simulations [25] and Taurus Device Simulator available commercially from Synopsys [47] and use them in the nominal latch type sense amplifier design and on the Independent Gate Self Compensation Sense Amplifier Design (IGSSA) to compare the yield and performance benefits of sense amplifier design on FinFET technology over the conventional bulk type CMOS based sense amplifier on 32nm technology node

Simulation of charge-trapping in nano-scale MOSFETs in the presence of random-dopants-induced variability

The growing variability of electrical characteristics is a major issue associated with continuous downscaling of contemporary bulk MOSFETs. In addition, the operating conditions brought about by these same scaling trends have pushed MOSFET degradation mechanisms such as Bias Temperature Instability (BTI) to the forefront as a critical reliability threat. This thesis investigates the impact of this ageing phenomena, in conjunction with device variability, on key MOSFET electrical parameters. A three-dimensional drift-diffusion approximation is adopted as the simulation approach in this work, with random dopant fluctuations—the dominant source of statistical variability—included in the simulations. The testbed device is a realistic 35 nm physical gate length n-channel conventional bulk MOSFET. 1000 microscopically different implementations of the transistor are simulated and subjected to charge-trapping at the oxide interface. The statistical simulations reveal relatively rare but very large threshold voltage shifts, with magnitudes over 3 times than that predicted by the conventional theoretical approach. The physical origin of this effect is investigated in terms of the electrostatic influences of the random dopants and trapped charges on the channel electron concentration. Simulations with progressively increased trapped charge densities—emulating the characteristic condition of BTI degradation—result in further variability of the threshold voltage distribution. Weak correlations of the order of 10-2 are found between the pre-degradation threshold voltage and post-degradation threshold voltage shift distributions. The importance of accounting for random dopant fluctuations in the simulations is emphasised in order to obtain qualitative agreement between simulation results and published experimental measurements. Finally, the information gained from these device-level physical simulations is integrated into statistical compact models, making the information available to circuit designers

Design and modelling of variability tolerant on-chip communication structures for future high performance system on chip designs

The incessant technology scaling has enabled the integration of functionally complex System-on-Chip (SoC) designs with a large number of heterogeneous systems on a single chip. The processing elements on these chips are integrated through on-chip communication structures which provide the infrastructure necessary for the exchange of data and control signals, while meeting the strenuous physical and design constraints. The use of vast amounts of on chip communications will be central to future designs where variability is an inherent characteristic. For this reason, in this thesis we investigate the performance and variability tolerance of typical on-chip communication structures. Understanding of the relationship between variability and communication is paramount for the designers; i.e. to devise new methods and techniques for designing performance and power efficient communication circuits in the forefront of challenges presented by deep sub-micron (DSM) technologies. The initial part of this work investigates the impact of device variability due to Random Dopant Fluctuations (RDF) on the timing characteristics of basic communication elements. The characterization data so obtained can be used to estimate the performance and failure probability of simple links through the methodology proposed in this work. For the Statistical Static Timing Analysis (SSTA) of larger circuits, a method for accurate estimation of the probability density functions of different circuit parameters is proposed. Moreover, its significance on pipelined circuits is highlighted. Power and area are one of the most important design metrics for any integrated circuit (IC) design. This thesis emphasises the consideration of communication reliability while optimizing for power and area. A methodology has been proposed for the simultaneous optimization of performance, area, power and delay variability for a repeater inserted interconnect. Similarly for multi-bit parallel links, bandwidth driven optimizations have also been performed. Power and area efficient semi-serial links, less vulnerable to delay variations than the corresponding fully parallel links are introduced. Furthermore, due to technology scaling, the coupling noise between the link lines has become an important issue. With ever decreasing supply voltages, and the corresponding reduction in noise margins, severe challenges are introduced for performing timing verification in the presence of variability. For this reason an accurate model for crosstalk noise in an interconnection as a function of time and skew is introduced in this work. This model can be used for the identification of skew condition that gives maximum delay noise, and also for efficient design verification

Design of Low-Voltage Digital Building Blocks and ADCs for Energy-Efficient Systems

Increasing number of energy-limited applications continue to drive the demand for designing systems with high energy efficiency. This tutorial covers the main building blocks of a system implementation including digital logic, embedded memories, and analog-to-digital converters and describes the challenges and solutions to designing these blocks for low-voltage operation

Simulation study of scaling design, performance characterization, statistical variability and reliability of decananometer MOSFETs

This thesis describes a comprehensive, simulation based scaling study – including device design, performance characterization, and the impact of statistical variability – on deca-nanometer bulk MOSFETs. After careful calibration of fabrication processes and electrical characteristics for n- and p-MOSFETs with 35 nm physical gate length, 1 nm EOT and stress engineering, the simulated devices closely match the performance of contemporary 45 nm CMOS technologies. Scaling to 25 nm, 18 nm and 13 nm gate length n and p devices follows generalized scaling rules, augmented by physically realistic constraints and the introduction of high-k/metal-gate stacks. The scaled devices attain the performance stipulated by the ITRS. Device a.c. performance is analyzed, at device and circuit level. Extrinsic parasitics become critical to nano-CMOS device performance. The thesis describes device capacitance components, analyzes the CMOS inverter, and obtains new insights into the inverter propagation delay in nano-CMOS. The projection of a.c. performance of scaled devices is obtained. The statistical variability of electrical characteristics, due to intrinsic parameter fluctuation sources, in contemporary and scaled decananometer MOSFETs is systematically investigated for the first time. The statistical variability sources: random discrete dopants, gate line edge roughness and poly-silicon granularity are simulated, in combination, in an ensemble of microscopically different devices. An increasing trend in the standard deviation of the threshold voltage as a function of scaling is observed. The introduction of high-k/metal gates improves electrostatic integrity and slows this trend. Statistical evaluations of variability in Ion and Ioff as a function of scaling are also performed. For the first time, the impact of strain on statistical variability is studied. Gate line edge roughness results in areas of local channel shortening, accompanied by locally increased strain, both effects increasing the local current. Variations are observed in both the drive current, and in the drive current enhancement normally expected from the application of strain. In addition, the effects of shallow trench isolation (STI) on MOSFET performance and on its statistical variability are investigated for the first time. The inverse-narrow-width effect of STI enhances the current density adjacent to it. This leads to a local enhancement of the influence of junction shapes adjacent to the STI. There is also a statistical impact on the threshold voltage due to random STI induced traps at the silicon/oxide interface

A Unified Approach for Performance Degradation Analysis from Transistor to Gate Level

In this paper, we present an extensive analysis of the performance degradation in MOSFET based circuits. The physical effects that we consider are the random dopant fluctuation (RDF), the oxide thickness fluctuation (OTF) and the Hot-carrier-Instability (HCI). The work that we propose is based on two main key points: First, the performance degradation is studied considering BULK, Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) and Double Gate (DG) MOSFET technologies. The analysis considers technology nodes from 45nm to 11nm. For the HCI effect we consider also the time-dependent evolution of the parameters of the circuit. Second, the analysis is performed from transistor level to gate level. Models are used to evaluate the variation of transistors key parameters, and how these variation affects performance at gate level as well.The work here presented was obtained using TAMTAMS Web, an open and publicly available framework for analysis of circuits based on transistors. The use of TAMTAMS Web greatly increases the value of this work, given that the analysis can be easily extended and improved in both complexity and depth