Advances in Repurposing and Recycling of Post-Vehicle-Application Lithium-Ion Batteries

Increased electrification of vehicles has increased the use of lithium-ion batteries for energy storage, and raised the issue of what to do with post-vehicle-application batteries. Three possibilities have been identified: 1) remanufacturing for intended reuse in vehicles; 2) repurposing for non-vehicle, stationary storage applications; and 3) recycling, extracting the precious metals, chemicals and other byproducts. Advances in repurposing and recycling are presented, along with a mathematical model that forecasts the manufacturing capacity needed for remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling. Results obtained by simulating the model show that up to a 25% reduction in the need for new batteries can be achieved through remanufacturing, that the sum of repurposing and remanufacturing capacity is approximately constant across various scenarios encouraging the sharing of resources, and that the need for recycling capacity will be significant by 2030. A repurposing demonstration shows the use of post-vehicle-application batteries to support a semi-portable recycling platform. Energy is collected from solar panels, and dispensed to electrical devices as required. Recycling may be complicated: lithium-ion batteries produced by different manufacturers contain different active materials, particularly for the cathodes. In all cases, however, the collecting foils used in the anodes are copper, and in the cathodes are aluminum. A common recycling process using relatively low acid concentrations, low temperatures, and short time periods was developed and demonstrated

Techno-economic feasibility of retired electric-vehicle batteries repurpose/reuse in second-life applications: A systematic review

In line with the global target in decarbonising the transportation sector and the noticeable increase of new electric vehicles (EV) owners, concerns are raised regarding the expected quantity of Retired EV Batteries (REVB) exposed to the environment when they reach 70–80% of their original capacity. However, there is significant potential for REVB, after deinstallation, to deliver energy for alternative applications such as storing surplus. This systematic review evaluates state-of-art modelling/experimental studies focused on repurposing REVB in second-life applications. Technical and economic viability of REVB repurposing has been confirmed to solve the unreliability of cleaner energy technologies and mitigate the high investment of new storage systems. 40% of included studies considered hybrid systems with PV being a dominant technology where REVB was evaluated to be small-scaled and large storage systems. Additionally, successful attempts were conducted to evaluate REVB performance in providing grid services. It has however, been discovered intensive grid services applications like frequency regulation, was technically challenging due to demanding working requirements. Reviewed studies considered different prices for REVB due to lack of market regulation on REVB resale; similarly, technical parameters, including initial State of Health (SoH) and State of Charge (SoC) constraints were inconsistent due to lack of standardisation

Lithium-ion battery second life:pathways, challenges and outlook

Net zero targets have resulted in a drive to decarbonise the transport sector worldwide through electrification. This has, in turn, led to an exponentially growing battery market and, conversely, increasing attention on how we can reduce the environmental impact of batteries and promote a more efficient circular economy to achieve real net zero. As these batteries reach the end of their first life, challenges arise as to how to collect and process them, in order to maximise their economical use before finally being recycled. Despite the growing body of work around this topic, the decision-making process on which pathways batteries could take is not yet well understood, and clear policies and standards to support implementation of processes and infrastructure are still lacking. Requirements and challenges behind recycling and second life applications are complex and continue being defined in industry and academia. Both pathways rely on cell collection, selection and processing, and are confronted with the complexities of pack disassembly, as well as a diversity of cell chemistries, state-of-health, size, and form factor. There are several opportunities to address these barriers, such as standardisation of battery design and reviewing the criteria for a battery’s end-of-life. These revisions could potentially improve the overall sustainability of batteries, but may require policies to drive such transformation across the industry. The influence of policies in triggering a pattern of behaviour that favours one pathway over another are examined and suggestions are made for policy amendments that could support a second life pipeline, while encouraging the development of an efficient recycling industry. This review explains the different pathways that end-of-life EV batteries could follow, either immediate recycling or service in one of a variety of second life applications, before eventual recycling. The challenges and barriers to each pathway are discussed, taking into account their relative environmental and economic feasibility and competing advantages and disadvantages of each. The review identifies key areas where processes need to be simplified and decision criteria clearly defined, so that optimal pathways can be rapidly determined for each end-of-life battery

The role of electric vehicles second-life batteries on renewable based power systems

Tese de mestrado integrado em Engenharia da Energia e Ambiente, apresentada à Universidade de Lisboa, através da Faculdade de Ciências, em 2018A mobilidade elétrica está em crescimento e irá representar uma parte muito relevante do mercado automóvel global nas próximas décadas. As baterias dos veículos elétricos são tipicamente substituídas enquanto ainda possuem uma capacidade significativa e, deste modo, podem ainda ter utilizações alternativas, criando a médio-longo prazo oportunidades para a sua reutilização em aplicações domésticas ou acopladas a sistemas de energias renováveis. A energia produzida por centrais eléctricas não despacháveis, particularmente eólicas e solares, implica um desafio na sua integração na rede devido à sua intermitência. Por outro lado, existe a necessidade de armazenar parte desta energia, cuja produção nem sempre coincide temporalmente com o consumo, mas as formas de o fazer em larga escala, a menos da bombagem hídrica, são escassas. Assim, reutilizar as baterias dos veículos elétricos após o seu serviço automóvel para este efeito representa uma solução promissora a um custo reduzido. Deste modo, ao facilitar a integração de energias renováveis nos sistemas electroprodutores, as baterias reutilizadas contribuirão também positivamente para a sustentabilidade dos veículos elétricos, se os benefícios desta solução forem incorporados na sua análise do ciclo de vida. Este estudo analisa de um ponto de vista técnico e energético de que modo um sistema electroprodutor pode beneficiar com a utilização de baterias reutilizadas para armazenar o excedente de produção por energias renováveis não despacháveis. Para tal, adotou-se como caso de estudo o sistema electroprodutor português no período de 2030 a 2050. Este contempla um modelo de difusão da mobilidade elétrica e da disponibilidade de baterias reutilizadas com diversos modelos de simulação em EnergyPlan. Cada modelo contém ainda submodelos de carregamento unidirecional inteligente dos veículos elétricos. Os resultados são ilustrados e quantificados comparativamente a um cenário base que não contempla armazenamento nas baterias reutilizadas. Para a análise são mostrados os diagramas de carga do sistema elétrico e é quantificado em que medida esta solução poderá facilitar a instalação adicional de solar-fotovoltaico e reduzir as necessidades de importação e exportação de energia, bem como da capacidade de interligação internacional. Dado que o sistema elétrico português é amplamente dependente de energia hidroelétrica, os resultados são também mostrados para um ano normal e para um ano de seca. Os resultados evidenciam que em 2050 o mercado de baterias reutilizadas poderá representar cerca de 38 GWh de capacidade de armazenamento. Num ano normal, estas permitem reduzir o excesso de energia de 0.77 para 0.03 TWh, e estão em operação maioritariamente durante o verão, com valores médios de carga e descarga de 251 e 181 MW, respetivamente. Em termos de integração de energias renováveis, as baterias deverão permitir uma capacidade adicional de 3581 MW de capacidade fotovoltaica, permitindo uma subida da produção renovável no mix eléctrico de 4%. Relativamente aos benefícios ambientais, as baterias permitem reduzir as emissões de CO2 em 0.2 Mton, representando 3,4% do valor total de emissões do sistema electroprodutor. Tendo em consideração o cenário com a capacidade adicional de solar-fotovoltaico, a redução de emissões ascende a 32%, evidenciando que o armazenamento de energia nas baterias é mais eficaz no decréscimo das emissões quando se consideram níveis mais elevados de capacidade fotovoltaica instalada. Para o cenário que considera um ano de seca, os resultados permitem aferir que as baterias reutilizadas têm a capacidade de compensar totalmente a reduzida capacidade de armazenamento nas albufeiras, auxiliando a rede quando necessário. Relativamente à capacidade da interligação internacional, para o cenário base sem armazenamento de energia nas baterias, obtém-se um valor de 8270 MW de capacidade de exportação necessária. No cenário com baterias, este valor decresce para 3810 MW. Desta forma, é possível dizer que as baterias reutilizadas assumem um papel relevante na rede elétrica. No cenário que de ano de seca, não são verificadas quaisquer necessidades de exportação, dado que as baterias têm a capacidade de armazenar toda a energia em excesso. Não obstante, a capacidade de importação necessária é de 2168 MW dada a produção diminuta das centrais hídricas no inverno. Apesar destes resultados, o fator de capacidade de utilização das baterias deverá ser baixo (cerca de 5%), visto que o sistema electroprodutor português possui uma grande capacidade instalada de bombagem hidroelétrica para armazenamento de energia em albufeiras. Tal sugere que em sistemas onde isto não acontece as baterias terão um papel mais relevante. Como trabalho futuro, dado que nos cenários testados a capacidade de armazenamento em baterias apenas começa a ser útil a partir de 2050, sugere-se um estudo que contemple mais penetração fotovoltaica, visando aferir de que modo as baterias poderiam facilitar a implantação adicional destas centrais. Este estudo poderá ser feito para vários cenários de regime hidrológico.Electric mobility is taking off, and it will represent a large share of the global automobile market in the next decades. The batteries of these vehicles are typically replaced while still having a significant remaining capacity, thus they are suitable for alternative uses, creating in the medium-long term opportunities for their repurpose to domestic applications or to direct coupling to renewable energy systems. This study analyses from a technical and energy balances viewpoint how a large power system can take advantage of second-life batteries to store potential excess of non-controllable renewable energy. For that, it uses the future Portuguese power system as case study. It couples a model of electric mobility diffusion and second-life batteries availability with various EnergyPlan simulation models of the power system for the period 2030-2050, comprising sub-models of unidirectional smart charging of electric vehicles. The results are illustrated and quantified against a base case scenario, which disregard secondlife battery storage. Load diagrams of the power system are shown, and it is quantified to what extent this solution may facilitate the deployment of solar-photovoltaics and reduce the needs for imports and exports and abroad interconnection capacity. Since the Portuguese power system is largely based on hydro energy, the results are shown both for the cases of a normal and a dry year. The results show that by 2050 the second-life batteries market should represent about 38 GWh of storage capacity. On a normal year, they allow to reduce the amount of energy in excess from 0,77 to 0,03 TWh, and mostly they are operated during the summer at an average charging and discharging rates of 251 and 181 MW, respectively. In terms of renewables integration, the batteries should allow an additional 3.581 MW of photovoltaics deployment, which allow to increase the electricity renewable share by 4%. Concerning environmental benefits, the batteries allow to decrease CO2 emissions by 0,2 Mton, which represent 3,4% of total emissions from the power system. If one considers the scenario with increased photovoltaics deployment that they allow, the reduction of CO2 emissions ascends to 32%. For the dry year scenario, the results are that the repurposed batteries are capable to fully compensate the lower storage capacity in the dams, supplying the grid when requested. In spite of these results, it was found that the capacity factor of the second-life batteries should be low (about 5%), since the Portuguese power system already comprises a large hydro-pumping capacity to store energy, suggesting that in systems where this is not the case the batteries should become more relevant

Viability of Electronic vehicle li-ion batteries for stationary storage applications in the EU by 2030

Electric vehicle batteries are not dead when they reach the end of their first useful life. Manufacturers are succeeding in bringing them back to life with three solutions: rehabilitating them, recycling them and, most importantly, reusing them in innovative applications that create significant value and encourage greater integration of renewable energy into grids. The introduction of these second-life batteries in households can lead to an improvement in energy efficiency and economic benefits for the user, as well as contributing to environmental care and sustainability. Batteries from the first generations of electric vehicles are already being tested for various purposes around the world in order to extend the knowledge in this field and pave the way for building a reliable structure for future battery deployments. Therefore, numerous car manufacturers, together with energy companies and leading electronics companies, have in recent years carried out pilot projects of possible alternatives for the second-life of batteries. To contribute to this study, this thesis presents an analysis to study the feasibility of deploying these second-life batteries in EU households to operate alongside the grid by 2030. The battery life prediction model provided in the article based on lithium batteries Cycle-life model for graphite LiFePO4 cells, as well as a study on the economic impact that these installations would have on users, has been necessary to obtain the preliminary findings on the economic viability. These results show a wide variety of outcomes, as they depend on household energy consumption and thus on life expectancy, which ranges from about 5 to 14 years. Although the data are not very encouraging in general, a positive trend can be observed which may lead to an improvement of the situation in the coming years and make it feasible for each situationObjectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::11 - Ciutats i Comunitats Sostenible

Viability of Electronic vehicle li-ion batteries for stationary storage applications in the EU by 2030

Electric vehicle batteries are not dead when they reach the end of their first useful life. Manufacturers are succeeding in bringing them back to life with three solutions: rehabilitating them, recycling them and, most importantly, reusing them in innovative applications that create significant value and encourage greater integration of renewable energy into grids. The introduction of these second-life batteries in households can lead to an improvement in energy efficiency and economic benefits for the user, as well as contributing to environmental care and sustainability. Batteries from the first generations of electric vehicles are already being tested for various purposes around the world in order to extend the knowledge in this field and pave the way for building a reliable structure for future battery deployments. Therefore, numerous car manufacturers, together with energy companies and leading electronics companies, have in recent years carried out pilot projects of possible alternatives for the second-life of batteries. To contribute to this study, this thesis presents an analysis to study the feasibility of deploying these second-life batteries in EU households to operate alongside the grid by 2030. The battery life prediction model provided in the article based on lithium batteries Cycle-life model for graphite LiFePO4 cells, as well as a study on the economic impact that these installations would have on users, has been necessary to obtain the preliminary findings on the economic viability. These results show a wide variety of outcomes, as they depend on household energy consumption and thus on life expectancy, which ranges from about 5 to 14 years. Although the data are not very encouraging in general, a positive trend can be observed which may lead to an improvement of the situation in the coming years and make it feasible for each situationObjectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::11 - Ciutats i Comunitats Sostenible

Stationary, Second Use Battery Energy Storage Systems and Their Applications: A Research Review

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Battery systems for commercial buildings with solar power : Control and operation strategies

Master's thesis Renewable Energy ENE500 - University of Agder 2019In order to reach the climate targets, a sustainable energy system based on renewable energy generationis required. Battery storage systems are considered part of the solution, aselectricity generationfrom renewable energy sources suchas wind and solardoes not match the energy consumption at all times.This thesis investigates control and operation of battery storage systems for commercial buildings with and without photovoltaicinstallations. It was found in the literaturereviewthat the correct size of a battery system is importantin order to have an optimal storage solution and avoid unnecessary costs. Therefore,a photovoltaicinstallationand batterystoragesystem is simulated in theHybrid Optimisation Model for Electrical Renewable(HOMER)Pro software.The power consumptionuser patternin a commercial building is also studied.Further, the operationof a battery storage system is optimised using integer linear programming in MATLAB. The battery storage system was optimised in regard today-aheadelectricity spot prices and power consumptionof a commercial building.The net present cost of different systemcombinations is calculatedwith the HOMERsoftware, and it was found that larger photovoltaicsystems without battery storage was the more profitable solution.The optimisation based on the day-ahead spotprices was able to reduce costsbased on energy fees, althoughit also increased the peaks in power consumption. This was due to low prices coinciding with hours ofhigh power consumption, which in turn can increase the fees for power consumption.For the power consumptiondriven optimisation,the peaks arereduced during high demand periodsand increased during low demand periods, thus balancing the power consumptionof thecommercial building.However,this does not reducecosts in terms of energy feesbut power fees, and the profit is dependenton which fees that apply. The goal of installing a battery storage system shouldthereforebe carefully evaluated so that it can be optimised with regard to the most profitable parametersfor a given system and building