Product assurance technology for custom LSI/VLSI electronics

The technology for obtaining custom integrated circuits from CMOS-bulk silicon foundries using a universal set of layout rules is presented. The technical efforts were guided by the requirement to develop a 3 micron CMOS test chip for the Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES). This chip contains both analog and digital circuits. The development employed all the elements required to obtain custom circuits from silicon foundries, including circuit design, foundry interfacing, circuit test, and circuit qualification

Simulation study of scaling design, performance characterization, statistical variability and reliability of decananometer MOSFETs

This thesis describes a comprehensive, simulation based scaling study – including device design, performance characterization, and the impact of statistical variability – on deca-nanometer bulk MOSFETs. After careful calibration of fabrication processes and electrical characteristics for n- and p-MOSFETs with 35 nm physical gate length, 1 nm EOT and stress engineering, the simulated devices closely match the performance of contemporary 45 nm CMOS technologies. Scaling to 25 nm, 18 nm and 13 nm gate length n and p devices follows generalized scaling rules, augmented by physically realistic constraints and the introduction of high-k/metal-gate stacks. The scaled devices attain the performance stipulated by the ITRS. Device a.c. performance is analyzed, at device and circuit level. Extrinsic parasitics become critical to nano-CMOS device performance. The thesis describes device capacitance components, analyzes the CMOS inverter, and obtains new insights into the inverter propagation delay in nano-CMOS. The projection of a.c. performance of scaled devices is obtained. The statistical variability of electrical characteristics, due to intrinsic parameter fluctuation sources, in contemporary and scaled decananometer MOSFETs is systematically investigated for the first time. The statistical variability sources: random discrete dopants, gate line edge roughness and poly-silicon granularity are simulated, in combination, in an ensemble of microscopically different devices. An increasing trend in the standard deviation of the threshold voltage as a function of scaling is observed. The introduction of high-k/metal gates improves electrostatic integrity and slows this trend. Statistical evaluations of variability in Ion and Ioff as a function of scaling are also performed. For the first time, the impact of strain on statistical variability is studied. Gate line edge roughness results in areas of local channel shortening, accompanied by locally increased strain, both effects increasing the local current. Variations are observed in both the drive current, and in the drive current enhancement normally expected from the application of strain. In addition, the effects of shallow trench isolation (STI) on MOSFET performance and on its statistical variability are investigated for the first time. The inverse-narrow-width effect of STI enhances the current density adjacent to it. This leads to a local enhancement of the influence of junction shapes adjacent to the STI. There is also a statistical impact on the threshold voltage due to random STI induced traps at the silicon/oxide interface

Design of a Low Power Physically Un-clonable Function for Generation of Random Sequence for Hardware Security

Physical Un-clonable Function (PUF) is a physical entity that provides secret key or fingerprints in silicon circuits by exploiting the uncontrollable randomness during its manufacturing randomness.  It provides a hardware unique signature or identification. Its property of uniqueness comes from its   unpredictable way of mapping challenges to responses, even if it was manufactured with the same process. Previous work has mainly focused on novel structures for non-FPGA reconfigurable silicon PUFs which does not need any special fabrication method and which can overcome the limitations of FPGA-based simulations. Their performance was quantified by the inter-chip variations, intra-chip variations and re-configurability tests to meet practical application needs. This paper presents a novel approach of designing a low power non-FPGA feed-forward PUF using double gate MOSFET and also to analyze its parameters such as intra-chip variation, reliability and power. Keywords: Physical Un-clonable Function (PUF); Intra-chip Variation; Reliability; Uniqueness; Standard feed forward; Double gate MOSFET, Modified feed forward

On Improving Robustness of Hardware Security Primitives and Resistance to Reverse Engineering Attacks

The continued growth of information technology (IT) industry and proliferation of interconnected devices has aggravated the problem of ensuring security and necessitated the need for novel, robust solutions. Physically unclonable functions (PUFs) have emerged as promising secure hardware primitives that can utilize the disorder introduced during manufacturing process to generate unique keys. They can be utilized as \textit{lightweight} roots-of-trust for use in authentication and key generation systems. Unlike insecure non-volatile memory (NVM) based key storage systems, PUFs provide an advantage -- no party, including the manufacturer, should be able to replicate the physical disorder and thus, effectively clone the PUF. However, certain practical problems impeded the widespread deployment of PUFs. This dissertation addresses such problems of (i) reliability and (ii) unclonability. Also, obfuscation techniques have proven necessary to protect intellectual property in the presence of an untrusted supply chain and are needed to aid against counterfeiting. This dissertation explores techniques utilizing layout and logic-aware obfuscation. Collectively, we present secure and cost-effective solutions to address crucial hardware security problems

Gate oxide failure in MOS devices

The thesis presents an experimental and theoretical investigation of gate oxide breakdown in MOS networks, with a particular emphasis on constant voltage overstress failure. It begins with a literature search on gate oxide failure mechanisms, particularly time-dependent dielectric breakdown, in MOS devices. The experimental procedure is then reported for the study of gate oxide breakdown under constant voltage stress. The experiments were carried out on MOSFETs and MOS capacitor structures, recording the characteristics of the devices before and after the stress. The effects of gate oxide breakdown in one of the transistors in an nMOS inverter were investigated and several parameters were found to have changed. A mathematical model for oxide breakdown, based on physical mechanisms, is proposed. Both electron and hole trapping occurred during the constant voltage stress. Breakdown appears to take place when the trapped hole density reach a critical value. PSPICE simulations were performed for the MOSFETs, nMOS inverter and CMOS logic circuits. Two models of MOSFET with gate oxide short were validated. A good agreement between experiments and simulations was achieved

Sensor de performance para células de memória CMOS

Vivemos hoje em dia tempos em que quase tudo tem um pequeno componente eletrónico e por sua vez esse componente precisa de uma memória para guardar as suas instruções. Dentro dos vários tipos de memórias, as Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) são as que mais utilização têm nos circuitos integrados e, com o avançar da tecnologia a ficar cada vez com uma escala mais reduzida, faz com que os problemas de performance e fiabilidade sejam uma constante. Efeitos como o BTI (Bias Thermal Instability), TDDB (Time Dependent Dielectric Breakdown), HCI (Hot Carrier Injection), EM (Electromigration), ao longo do tempo vão deteriorando os parâmetros físicos dos transístores de efeito de campo (MOSFET), mudando as suas propriedades elétricas. Associado ao efeito de BTI podemos ter o efeito PBTI (Positive BTI), que afeta mais os transístores NMOS, e o efeito NBTI (Negative BTI), que afeta mais os transístores PMOS. Se para nanotecnologias até 32 nanómetros o efeito NBTI é dominante, para tecnologias mais baixas os 2 efeitos são igualmente importantes. Porém, existem ainda outras variações no desempenho que podem colocar em causa o bom funcionamento dos circuitos, como as variações de processo (P), tensão (V) e temperatura (T), ou considerando todas estas variações, e de uma forma genérica, PVTA (Process, Voltage, Temperature and Aging). Tendo como base as células de memória de acesso aleatório (RAM, Random Access Memory), em particular as memórias estáticas (SRAM, Static Random Access Memory) e dinâmicas (DRAM, Dynamic Random Access Memory) que possuem tempos de leitura e escrita precisos, estas ficam bastante expostas ao envelhecimento dos seus componentes e, consecutivamente, acontece um decréscimo na sua performance, resultando em transições mais lentas, que por sua vez fará com que existam leituras e escritas mais lentas e poderão ocorrer erros nessas leituras e escritas . Para além destes fenómenos, temos também o facto de a margem de sinal ruido (SNM - Static Noise Margin) diminuir, fazendo com que a fiabilidade da memória seja colocada em causa. O envelhecimento das memórias CMOS traduz-se, portanto, na ocorrência de erros nas memórias ao longo do tempo, o que é indesejável, especialmente em sistemas críticos onde a ocorrência de um erro ou uma falha na memória pode significar por em risco sistemas de elevada importância e fundamentais (por exemplo, em sistemas de segurança, um erro pode desencadear um conjunto de ações não desejadas). Anteriormente já foram apresentadas algumas soluções para esta monitorização dos erros de uma memória, disponíveis na literatura, como é o caso do sensor de envelhecimento embebido no circuito OCAS (On-Chip Aging Sensor), que permite detetar envelhecimento numa SRAM provocado pelo envelhecimento por NBTI. Contudo este sensor demonstra algumas limitações, pois apenas se aplica a um conjunto de células SRAM conectadas a uma bit line, não sendo aplicado individualmente a outras células de memória como uma DRAM e não contemplando o efeito PBTI. Outra solução apresentada anteriormente é o Sensor de Envelhecimento para Células de Memória CMOS que demonstra alguma evolução em relação ao sensor OCAS. Contudo, ainda tem limitações, como é o caso de estar bastante dependente do sincronismo com a memória e não permitir qualquer tipo de calibração do sistema ao longo do seu funcionamento. O trabalho apresentado nesta dissertação resolve muitos dos problemas existentes nos trabalhos anteriores. Isto é, apresenta-se um sensor de performance para memórias capaz de reconhecer quando é que a memória pode estar na eminência de falhar, devido a fatores que afetam o desempenho da memória nas operações de escrita e leitura. Ou seja, sinaliza de forma preditiva as falhas. Este sensor está dividido em três grandes partes, como a seguir se descreve. O Transistion Detector é uma delas, que funciona como um “conversor” das transições na bit line da memória para o sensor, criando pulsos de duração proporcional à duração da transição na bit line, sendo que uma transição rápida resulta em pulsos curtos e uma transição lenta resulta em pulsos longos. Esta parte do circuito apresenta 2 tipos de configurações para o caso de ser aplicado numa SRAM, sendo que uma das configurações é para as memórias SRAM inicializadas a VDD, e a segunda configuração para memórias SRAM inicializadas a VDD/2. É também apresentada uma terceira configuração para o caso de o detetor ser aplicado numa DRAM. O funcionamento do detetor de transições está baseado num conjunto de inversores desequilibrados (ou seja, com capacidades de condução diferentes entre o transístor N e P no inversor), criando assim inversores do tipo N (com o transístor N mais condutivo que o P) e inversores do tipo P (com o transístor P mais condutivo que o N) que respondem de forma diferente às transições de 1 para 0 e vice-versa. Estas diferenças serão cruciais para a criação do pulso final que entrará no Pulse Detetor. Este segundo bloco do sensor é responsável por carregar um condensador com uma tensão proporcional ao tempo que a bit line levou a transitar. É nesta parte que se apresenta uma caraterística nova e importante, quando comparado com as soluções já existentes, que é a capacidade do sensor poder ser calibrado. Para isso, é utilizado um conjunto de transístores para carregar o condensador durante o impulso gerado no detetor de transições, que permitem aumentar ou diminuir a resistência de carga do condensador, ficando este com mais ou menos tensão (a tensão proporcional ao tempo da transição da bit line) a ser usada na Comparação seguinte. O terceiro grande bloco deste sensor é resumidamente um bloco comparador, que compara a tensão guardada no condensador com uma tensão de referência disponível no sensor e definida durante o projeto. Este comparador tem a função de identificar qual destas 2 tensões é a mais alta (a do condensador, que é proporcional ao tempo de transição da bit line, ou a tensão de referência) e fazer com a mesma seja “disparada” para VDD, sendo que a tensão mais baixa será colocada a VSS. Desta forma é sinalizado se a transição que está a ser avaliada deve ser considerada um erro ou não. Para controlar todo o processo, o sensor tem na sua base de funcionamento um controlador (uma máquina de estados finita composta por 3 estados). O primeiro estado do controlador é o estado de Reset, que faz com que todos os pontos do circuito estejam com as tenções necessárias ao início de funcionamento do mesmo. O segundo estado é o Sample, que fica a aguardar uma transição na bit line para ser validada pelo sensor e fazer com que o mesmo avance para o terceiro estado, que é o de Compare, onde ativa o comparador do sensor e coloca no exterior o resultado dessa comparação. Assim, se for detetado uma transição demasiado lenta na bit line, que é um sinal de erro, o mesmo será sinalizado para o exterior activando o sinal de saída. Caso o sensor não detete nenhum erro nas transições, o sinal de saída não é activado. O sensor tem a capacidade de funcionar em modo on-line, ou seja, não é preciso desligar o circuito de memória do seu funcionamento normal para poder ser testado. Para além disso, pode ainda ser utilizado internamente na memória, como sensor local (monitorizando as células reais de memória), ou externamente, como sensor global, caso seja colocado a monitorizar uma célula de memória fictícia.Within the several types of memories, the Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) are the most used in the integrated circuits and, as technology advances and becomes increasingly smaller in scale, it makes performance and reliability a constant problem. Effects such as BTI (Bias Thermal Instability), the positive (PBTI - Positive BTI) and the negative (NBTI - Negative BTI), TDDB (Time Dependent Dielectric Breakdown), HCI (Hot Carrier Injection), EM (Electromigration), etc., are aging effects that contribute to a cumulatively degradation of the transistors. Moreover, other parametric variations may also jeopardize the proper functioning of circuits and contribute to reduce circuits’ performance, such as process variations (P), power-supply voltage variations (V) and temperature variations (T), or considering all these variations, and in a generic way, PVTA (Process, Voltage, Temperature and Aging). The Sensor proposed in this paper aims to signalize these problems so that the user knows when the memory operation may be compromised. The sensor is made up of three important parts, the Transition Detector, the Pulse Detector and the Comparator, creating a sensor that converts bit line transition created in a memory operation (read or write) into a pulse and a voltage, that can be compared with a reference voltage available in the sensor. If the reference voltage is higher than the voltage proportional to the bit line transition time, the sensor output is not activated; but if the bit line transition time is high enough to generate a voltage higher than the reference voltage in the sensor, the sensor output signalizes a predictive error, denoting that the memory performance is in a critical state that may lead to an error if corrective measures are not taken. One important feature in this sensor topology is that it can be calibrated during operation, by controlling sensor’s sensibility to the bit line transition. Another important feature is that it can be applied locally, to monitor the online operation of the memory, or globally, by monitoring a dummy memory in pre-defined conditions. Moreover, it can be applied to SRAM or DRAM, being the first online sensor available for DRAM memories

Techniques of Energy-Efficient VLSI Chip Design for High-Performance Computing

How to implement quality computing with the limited power budget is the key factor to move very large scale integration (VLSI) chip design forward. This work introduces various techniques of low power VLSI design used for state of art computing. From the viewpoint of power supply, conventional in-chip voltage regulators based on analog blocks bring the large overhead of both power and area to computational chips. Motivated by this, a digital based switchable pin method to dynamically regulate power at low circuit cost has been proposed to make computing to be executed with a stable voltage supply. For one of the widely used and time consuming arithmetic units, multiplier, its operation in logarithmic domain shows an advantageous performance compared to that in binary domain considering computation latency, power and area. However, the introduced conversion error reduces the reliability of the following computation (e.g. multiplication and division.). In this work, a fast calibration method suppressing the conversion error and its VLSI implementation are proposed. The proposed logarithmic converter can be supplied by dc power to achieve fast conversion and clocked power to reduce the power dissipated during conversion. Going out of traditional computation methods and widely used static logic, neuron-like cell is also studied in this work. Using multiple input floating gate (MIFG) metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) based logic, a 32-bit, 16-operation arithmetic logic unit (ALU) with zipped decoding and a feedback loop is designed. The proposed ALU can reduce the switching power and has a strong driven-in capability due to coupling capacitors compared to static logic based ALU. Besides, recent neural computations bring serious challenges to digital VLSI implementation due to overload matrix multiplications and non-linear functions. An analog VLSI design which is compatible to external digital environment is proposed for the network of long short-term memory (LSTM). The entire analog based network computes much faster and has higher energy efficiency than the digital one

Radiation Tolerant Electronics, Volume II

Research on radiation tolerant electronics has increased rapidly over the last few years, resulting in many interesting approaches to model radiation effects and design radiation hardened integrated circuits and embedded systems. This research is strongly driven by the growing need for radiation hardened electronics for space applications, high-energy physics experiments such as those on the large hadron collider at CERN, and many terrestrial nuclear applications, including nuclear energy and safety management. With the progressive scaling of integrated circuit technologies and the growing complexity of electronic systems, their ionizing radiation susceptibility has raised many exciting challenges, which are expected to drive research in the coming decade.After the success of the first Special Issue on Radiation Tolerant Electronics, the current Special Issue features thirteen articles highlighting recent breakthroughs in radiation tolerant integrated circuit design, fault tolerance in FPGAs, radiation effects in semiconductor materials and advanced IC technologies and modelling of radiation effects

Investigation on Performance Metrics of Nanoscale Multigate MOSFETs towards RF and IC Applications

Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) MOSFETs have been the primary precursor for the CMOS technology since last few decades offering superior device performance in terms of package density, speed, and reduced second order harmonics. Recent trends of investigation have stimulated the interest in Fully Depleted (FD) SOI MOSFET because of their remarkable scalability efficiency. However, some serious issues like short channel effects (SCEs) viz drain induced barrier lowering (DIBL), Vth roll-off, subthreshold slope (SS), and hot carrier effects (HCEs) are observed in nanoscale regime. Numerous advanced structures with various engineering concepts have been addressed to reduce the above mentioned SCEs in SOI platform. Among them strain engineering, high-k gate dielectric with metal gate technology (HKMG), and non-classical multigate technologies are most popular models for enhancement in carrier mobility, suppression of gate leakage current, and better immunization to SCEs. In this thesis, the performance of various emerging device designs are analyzed in nanoscale with 2-D modeling as well as through calibrated TCAD simulation. These attempts are made to reduce certain limitations of nanoscale design and to provide a significant contribution in terms of improved performances of the miniaturized devices. Various MOS parameters like gate work function (_m), channel length (L), channel thickness (tSi), and gate oxide thickness (tox) are optimized for both FD-SOI and Multiple gate technology. As the semiconductor industries migrate towards multigate technology for system-on-chip (SoC), system-in-package (SiP), and internet-of-things (IoT) applications, an appropriate examination of the advanced multiple gate MOFETs is required for the analog/RF application keeping reliability issue in mind. Various non-classical device structures like gate stack engineering and halo doping in the channel are extensively studied for analog/RF applications in double gate (DG) platform. A unique attempt has been made for detailed analysis of the state-of-the-art 3-D FinFET on dependency of process variability. The 3-D architecture is branched as Planar or Trigate or FinFET according to the aspect ratio (WFin=HFin). The evaluation of zero temperature coefficient (ZTC) or temperature inflection point (TCP) is one of the key investigation of the thesis for optimal device operation and reliability. The sensitivity of DG-MOSFET and FinFET performances have been addressed towards a wide range of temperature variations, and the ZTC points are identified for both the architectures. From the presented outcomes of this work, some ideas have also been left for the researchers for design of optimum and reliable device architectures to meet the requirements of high performance (HP) and/or low standby power (LSTP) applications