Neural changes associated with nonspeech auditory category learning parallel those of speech category acquisition.

Native language experience plays a critical role in shaping speech categorization, but the exact mechanisms by which it does so are not well understood. Investigating category learning of nonspeech sounds with which listeners have no prior experience allows their experience to be systematically controlled in a way that is impossible to achieve by studying natural speech acquisition, and it provides a means of probing the boundaries and constraints that general auditory perception and cognition bring to the task of speech category learning. In this study, we used a multimodal, video-game-based implicit learning paradigm to train participants to categorize acoustically complex, nonlinguistic sounds. MMN responses to the nonspeech stimuli were collected before and after training, and changes in MMN resulting from the nonspeech category learning closely resemble patterns of change typically observed during speech category learning. Results indicate that changes in mismatch negativity resulting from the nonspeech category learning closely resemble patterns of change typically observed during speech category learning. This suggests that the often-observed "specialized" neural responses to speech sounds may result, at least in part, from the expertise we develop with speech categories through experience rather than from properties unique to speech (e.g., linguistic or vocal tract gestural information). Furthermore, particular characteristics of the training paradigm may inform our understanding of mechanisms that support natural speech acquisition.</p

Categorical representations of phonemic vowels investigated with fMRI

The present thesis investigates the sensitivity of the human auditory cortex (AC) to the contrast between prototype and nonprototype vowels as well as between phonemic and nonphonemic vowels. Activations to vowels were measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which was also used to analyze the effect of categorical processing on modulations in AC and adjacent inferior parietal lobule (IPL) observed during active listening tasks. A prominent theoretical view suggests that native phonemic vowels (i.e., phonemes) are represented in the human brain as categories organized around a best representative of the category (i.e., phoneme prototype). This view predicts systematic differences in the neural representations and processing of phoneme prototypes, nonprototypes and nonphonemic vowels. In three separate studies, subjects were presented with vowel pairs and visual stimuli during demanding auditory and visual tasks. Study I compared activations to prototypical and nonprototypical vowels, whereas Study II focused on the contrast between phonemic and nonphonemic vowels. Study II also tested whether activations in IPL during a categorical vowel memory task depend on whether the task is performed on phonemic (easy to categorize) or nonphonemic (harder to categorize) vowels. Study III was designed to replicate the key findings of Studies I and II. Further, Study III compared activations to identical vowels presented during a number of different task conditions requiring analysis of the acoustical or categorical differences between the vowels. The results of this thesis are in line with the general theoretical view that phonemic vowels are represented in a categorical manner in the human brain. Studies I–III showed that information about categorical vowel representations is present in human AC during active listening tasks. Areas of IPL, in turn, were implicated in general operations on categorical representations rather than in categorization of speech sounds as such. Further, the present results demonstrate that task-dependent activations in AC and adjacent IPL strongly depend on whether the task requires analysis of the acoustical or categorical features of the vowels. It is important to note that, in the present studies, surprisingly small differences in the characteristics of the vowel stimuli or the tasks performed on these vowels resulted in significant and widespread activation differences in AC and adjacent regions. As the key findings of Studies I and II were also quite successfully replicated in Study III, these results highlight the importance of carefully controlled experiments and replications in fMRI research.Vallitsevan teorian mukaan äidinkielen foneemisten vokaalien (eli foneemien) representaatiot ovat luonteeltaan kategorisia eli äänteet ovat järjestyneet kategorian parhaan esiintymän (eli foneemin prototyypin) ympärille. Teoria ennustaa, että foneemiprototyyppien, nonprototyyppien ja nonfoneemisten vokaalien representaatiot ja niiden käsittely aivoissa eroavat toisistaan. Tässä väitöskirjassa selvitetään toiminnallisen magneettikuvauksen (fMRI) avulla, eroaako ihmisen kuuloaivokuoren ja sen lähialueiden aktivaatio prototyyppisten ja nonprototyyppisten sekä foneemisten ja nonfoneemisten vokaalien käsittelyn aikana ja miten aktiiviset kuuntelutehtävät vaikuttavat näihin eroihin. Väitöskirjan kolmessa osatutkimuksessa koehenkilöille esitettiin vokaalipareja ja visuaalisia ärsykkeitä kuuntelu- ja katselutehtävien aikana. Tutkimuksessa I vokaaliparit koostuivat prototyyppisistä ja nonprototyyppisistä foneemisista vokaaleista. Tutkimuksessa II puolestaan tarkasteltiin foneemisten ja nonfoneemisten vokaalien käsittelyn eroa. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa II selvitettiin, riippuuko kuuloaivokuoren ja sen lähialueiden tehtäväsidonnainen aktivaatio siitä, suoritetaanko kuuntelutehtävää helposti (foneemiset vokaalit) vai vaikeasti (nonfoneemiset vokaalit) kategorisoitavilla vokaaleilla. Viimeisessä tutkimuksessa (III) toistettiin tutkimusten I ja II päätulokset. Tutkimuksessa III selvitettiin myös sitä, miten aktivaatio äänten erottelutehtävän aikana eroaa silloin, kun vokaaleja erotellaan niiden fysikaalisten tai kategoristen ominaisuuksien perusteella. Väitöskirjan tutkimuksissa saadut tulokset tukevat oletetusta siitä, että foneemisten vokaalien representaatiot ovat luonteeltaan kategorisia. Tulokset osoittavat, että tieto vokaalikategorioiden representaatioista on käytettävissä kuuloaivokuorella aktiivisten kuuntelutehtävien aikana. Lisäksi tutkimuksissa havaittiin, että päälakilohkon alaosien aktivaatio voimistui niiden tehtävien aikana, jotka vaativat kategorisen tiedon käsittelyä. Näiden aivoalueiden aktivaatio ei kuitenkaan näytä liittyvän kategorioiden muodostamiseen (puheäänten kategorisointiin) sinänsä. On merkillepantavaa, että tutkimuksissa I–III näennäisen pienet erot vokaaliärsykkeissä ja kuuntelutehtävissä johtivat huomattaviin aktivaatioeroihin kuuloaivokuorella ja sen läheisillä aivoalueilla. Tämä korostaa huolellisesti kontrolloitujen koeasetelmien ja etenkin replikaatiotutkimusten tärkeyttä fMRI -tutkimuksissa

How may the basal ganglia contribute to auditory categorization and speech perception?

Listeners must accomplish two complementary perceptual feats in extracting a message from speech. They must discriminate linguistically-relevant acoustic variability and generalize across irrelevant variability. Said another way, they must categorize speech. Since the mapping of acoustic variability is language-specific, these categories must be learned from experience. Thus, understanding how, in general, the auditory system acquires and represents categories can inform us about the toolbox of mechanisms available to speech perception. This perspective invites consideration of findings from cognitive neuroscience literatures outside of the speech domain as a means of constraining models of speech perception. Although neurobiological models of speech perception have mainly focused on cerebral cortex, research outside the speech domain is consistent with the possibility of significant subcortical contributions in category learning. Here, we review the functional role of one such structure, the basal ganglia. We examine research from animal electrophysiology, human neuroimaging, and behavior to consider characteristics of basal ganglia processing that may be advantageous for speech category learning. We also present emerging evidence for a direct role for basal ganglia in learning auditory categories in a complex, naturalistic task intended to model the incidental manner in which speech categories are acquired. To conclude, we highlight new research questions that arise in incorporating the broader neuroscience research literature in modeling speech perception, and suggest how understanding contributions of the basal ganglia can inform attempts to optimize training protocols for learning non-native speech categories in adulthood

Dimension-selective attention as a possible driver of dynamic, context-dependent re-weighting in speech processing

The contribution of acoustic dimensions to an auditory percept is dynamically adjusted and reweighted based on prior experience about how informative these dimensions are across the long-term and short-term environment. This is especially evident in speech perception, where listeners differentially weight information across multiple acoustic dimensions, and use this information selectively to update expectations about future sounds. The dynamic and selective adjustment of how acoustic input dimensions contribute to perception has made it tempting to conceive of this as a form of non-spatial auditory selective attention. Here, we review several human speech perception phenomena that might be consistent with auditory selective attention although, as of yet, the literature does not definitively support a mechanistic tie. We relate these human perceptual phenomena to illustrative nonhuman animal neurobiological findings that offer informative guideposts in how to test mechanistic connections. We next present a novel empirical approach that can serve as a methodological bridge from human research to animal neurobiological studies. Finally, we describe four preliminary results that demonstrate its utility in advancing understanding of human non-spatial dimension-based auditory selective attention

Individual auditory categorization abilities are shaped by intrinsic and experience-driven neural factors

Individual auditory categorization abilities are shaped by intrinsic and experience-driven neural factor

Nonnative Phonetic Perception in Adult L2 Learners

Even with years of practice, adult learners have trouble perceiving and producing sounds in a second language (L2). Adults tend to need more focused and targeted input to achieve native-like perception and production of L2 sounds than children. The present study aims to clarify the mechanisms through which L2 perception is influenced by first language (L1) sounds, the neural basis of this perception, how learner differences influence learning, and how different training paradigms modulate both the neural and behavioral basis of L2 sound perception. Native English and native Spanish speakers participated in a five-day training paradigm during which they learned to discriminate Hindi sounds that do not belong to their L1 sound categories. Participants underwent electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings from the scalp, baseline discrimination tasks, training, and several memory and attention individual measures. We expected that the L1 would modulate the EEG waveform known as the mismatch negativity (MMN) at approximately 150-200ms after sound onset. This measure indexes early phonetic learning and previous research has shown that the waveform’s amplitude can change or shift with new phonetic learning, indicating a reorganization of early acoustic and phonetic processing with new input. Furthermore, we examined how the L1 and different training and feedback paradigms influence this MMN change. Results demonstrate that both learner groups showed a modulation in the MMN waveform after training, but the change was eclipsed by the native contrast that was tested as a control, depending on how well they performed during training. Furthermore, participants in the feedback condition performed better on the training than those in the no-feedback condition but this was not related to the ERP results, suggesting that feedback may be useful for overt behavioral responses, but not necessary for pre-attentive neural responses. These results are examined in light of the Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM; Best, 1991, 1995), the Speech Learning Model (SLM; Flege, 1995), the Native Language Magnet model (NLM; Kuhl & Riviera-Gaxiola, 2008), and the Unified Competition Model (UCM; MacWhinney, 2005), examining similarity between L1s, neural hardwiring in the brain, and competition between phonetic contrasts

Language Science Meets Cognitive Science: Categorization and Adaptation

Questions of domain-generality—the extent to which multiple cognitive functions are represented and processed in the same manner—are common topics of discussion in cognitive science, particularly within the realm of language. In the present dissertation, I examine the domain-specificity of two processes in speech perception: category learning and rate adaptation. With regard to category learning, I probed the acquisition of categories of German fricatives by English and German native speakers, finding a bias in both groups towards quicker acquisition of non-disjunctive categories than their disjunctive counterparts. However, a study using an analogous continuum of non-speech sounds, in this case spectrally-rotated musical instrument sounds, did not show such a bias, suggesting that at least some attributes of the phonetic category learning process are unique to speech. For rate adaptation, meanwhile, I first report a study examining rate adaptation in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), where consonant length is a contrastive part of the phonology; that is, where words can be distinguished from one another by the length of the consonants that make them up. I found that changing the rate of the beginning of a sentence can lead a consonant towards the end of the sentence to change in its perceived duration; a short consonant can sound like a long one, and a long consonant can sound like a short one. An analogous experiment examined rate adaptation in event segmentation, where adaptation-like effects had not previously been explored, using recordings of an actor interacting with a touchscreen. I found that the perception of actions can also be affected by the rate of previously-occurring actions. Listeners adapt to the rate at the beginning of a series of actions when deciding what they saw last in that series of actions. This suggests that rate adaptation follows similar lines across both domains. All told, this dissertation leads to a picture of domain-specificity in which both domain-general and domain-specific processes can operate, with domain-specific processes can help scaffold the use of domain-general processing