Automatic extraction of definitions

Tese de doutoramento, Informática (Engenharia Informática), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2014This doctoral research work provides a set of methods and heuristics for building a definition extractor or for fine-tuning an existing one. In order to develop and test the architecture, a generic definitions extractor for the Portuguese language is built. Furthermore, the methods were tested in the construction of an extractor for two languages different from Portuguese, which are English and, less extensively, Dutch. The approach presented in this work makes the proposed extractor completely different in nature in comparison to the other works in the field. It is a matter of fact that most systems that automatically extract definitions have been constructed taking into account a specific corpus on a specific topic, and are based on the manual construction of a set of rules or patterns capable of identifyinf a definition in a text. This research focused on three types of definitions, characterized by the connector between the defined term and its description. The strategy adopted can be seen as a "divide and conquer"approach. Differently from the other works representing the state of the art, specific heuristics were developed in order to deal with different types of definitions, namely copula, verbal and punctuation definitions. We used different methodology for each type of definition, namely we propose to use rule-based methods to extract punctuation definitions, machine learning with sampling algorithms for copula definitions, and machine learning with a method to increase the number of positive examples for verbal definitions. This architecture is justified by the increasing linguistic complexity that characterizes the different types of definitions. Numerous experiments have led to the conclusion that the punctuation definitions are easily described using a set of rules. These rules can be easily adapted to the relevant context and translated into other languages. However, in order to deal with the other two definitions types, the exclusive use of rules is not enough to get good performance and it asks for more advanced methods, in particular a machine learning based approach. Unlike other similar systems, which were built having in mind a specific corpus or a specific domain, the one reported here is meant to obtain good results regardless the domain or context. All the decisions made in the construction of the definition extractor take into consideration this central objective.Este trabalho de doutoramento visa proporcionar um conjunto de métodos e heurísticas para a construção de um extractor de definição ou para melhorar o desempenho de um sistema já existente, quando usado com um corpus específico. A fim de desenvolver e testar a arquitectura, um extractor de definic˛ões genérico para a língua Portuguesa foi construído. Além disso, os métodos foram testados na construção de um extractor para um idioma diferente do Português, nomeadamente Inglês, algumas heurísticas também foram testadas com uma terceira língua, ou seja o Holandês. A abordagem apresentada neste trabalho torna o extractor proposto neste trabalho completamente diferente em comparação com os outros trabalhos na área. É um fato que a maioria dos sistemas de extracção automática de definicões foram construídos tendo em conta um corpus específico com um tema bem determinado e são baseados na construc˛ão manual de um conjunto de regras ou padrões capazes de identificar uma definição num texto dum domínio específico. Esta pesquisa centrou-se em três tipos de definições, caracterizadas pela ligacão entre o termo definido e a sua descrição. A estratégia adoptada pode ser vista como uma abordagem "dividir para conquistar". Diferentemente de outras pesquisa nesta área, foram desenvolvidas heurísticas específicas a fim de lidar com as diferentes tipologias de definições, ou seja, cópula, verbais e definicões de pontuação. No presente trabalho propõe-se utilizar uma metodologia diferente para cada tipo de definição, ou seja, propomos a utilização de métodos baseados em regras para extrair as definições de pontuação, aprendizagem automática, com algoritmos de amostragem para definições cópula e aprendizagem automática com um método para aumentar automáticamente o número de exemplos positivos para a definição verbal. Esta arquitetura é justificada pela complexidade linguística crescente que caracteriza os diferentes tipos de definições. Numerosas experiências levaram à conclusão de que as definições de pontuação são facilmente descritas utilizando um conjunto de regras. Essas regras podem ser facilmente adaptadas ao contexto relevante e traduzido para outras línguas. No entanto, a fim de lidar com os outros dois tipos de definições, o uso exclusivo de regras não é suficiente para obter um bom desempenho e é preciso usar métodos mais avançados, em particular aqueles baseados em aprendizado de máquina. Ao contrário de outros sistemas semelhantes, que foram construídos tendo em mente um corpus ou um domínio específico, o sistema aqui apresentado foi desenvolvido de maneira a obter bons resultados, independentemente do domínio ou da língua. Todas as decisões tomadas na construção do extractor de definição tiveram em consideração este objectivo central.Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT, SFRH/ BD/36732/2007

Patterns for marking ingredients and order of processes in Costa Rican gastronomic texts

En este artículo, se presentará una síntesis de los procedimientos y resultados relativos a la primera etapa, o etapa precomputacional, del proyecto “Análisis de contextos definicionales en corpus de gastronomía tradicional en Costa Rica (CODEGAT)”, en el que se estudian los recursos de marcación de informaciones gastronómicas presentes en corpus textuales en español en Costa Rica. Concretamente, se expondrán las tareas para la identificación de patrones asociados con dos tipos de rasgos necesarios para la configuración de una receta, que son “ingredientes” y “orden de procesos”, para, finalmente, ofrecer una propuesta de categorización de los marcadores que aparecen en tales patrones, con ejemplos típicos de cada clase y de sus posibles contextos de aparición.In this paper, a synthesis of the procedures and results related to the first stage or pre-computational stage of the research project “Análisis de contextos definicionales en corpus de gastronomía tradicional en Costa Rica (CODEGAT)” [“Analysis of definitional contexts in corpora of traditional gastronomy in Costa Rica (CODEGAT)”] will be presented; in that stage, the linguistic resources for marking conceptual relations in gastronomic textual corpora in Costa Rican Spanish are studied. Specifically, the tasks for the identification of patterns associated with two types of features that were found as necessary in the formulation of a recipe (“ingredients” and “processes order”) will be explained, to finally propose a categorization of the markers that appear in such patterns, with typical examples of each class and of its possible contexts of appearance.UCR::Vicerrectoría de Docencia::Artes y Letras::Facultad de Letras::Escuela de Filología, Lingüística y LiteraturaUCR::Vicerrectoría de Docencia::Ingeniería::Facultad de Ingeniería::Escuela de Ciencias de la Computación e InformáticaUCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Artes y Letras::Instituto de Investigaciones Lingüísticas (INIL

Automatic Question Generation to Support Reading Comprehension of Learners - Content Selection, Neural Question Generation, and Educational Evaluation

Simply reading texts passively without actively engaging with their content is suboptimal for text comprehension since learners may miss crucial concepts or misunderstand essential ideas. In contrast, engaging learners actively by asking questions fosters text comprehension. However, educational resources frequently lack questions. Textbooks often contain only a few at the end of a chapter, and informal learning resources such as Wikipedia lack them entirely. Thus, in this thesis, we study to what extent questions about educational science texts can be automatically generated, tackling two research questions. The first question concerns selecting learning-relevant passages to guide the generation process. The second question investigates the generated questions' potential effects and applicability in reading comprehension scenarios. Our first contribution improves the understanding of neural question generation's quality in education. We find that the generators' high linguistic quality transfers to educational texts but that they require guidance by educational content selection. In consequence, we study multiple educational context and answer selection mechanisms. In our second contribution, we propose novel context selection approaches which target question-worthy sentences in texts. In contrast to previous works, our context selectors are guided by educational theory. The proposed methods perform competitive to related work while operating with educationally motivated decision criteria that are easier to understand for educational experts. The third contribution addresses answer selection methods to guide neural question generation with expected answers. Our experiments highlight the need for educational corpora for the task. Models trained on noneducational corpora do not transfer well to the educational domain. Given this discrepancy, we propose a novel corpus construction approach. It automatically derives educational answer selection corpora from textbooks. We verify the approach's usefulness by showing that neural models trained on the constructed corpora learn to detect learning-relevant concepts. In our last contribution, we use the insights from the previous experiments to design, implement, and evaluate an automatic question generator for educational use. We evaluate the proposed generator intrinsically with an expert annotation study and extrinsically with an empirical reading comprehension study. The two evaluation scenarios provide a nuanced view of the generated questions' strengths and weaknesses. Expert annotations attribute an educational value to roughly 60 % of the questions but also reveal various ways in which the questions still fall short of the quality experts desire. Furthermore, the reader-based evaluation indicates that the proposed educational question generator increases learning outcomes compared to a no-question control group. In summary, the results of the thesis improve the understanding of the content selection tasks in educational question generation and provide evidence that it can improve reading comprehension. As such, the proposed approaches are promising tools for authors and learners to promote active reading and thus foster text comprehension

Razonamiento regresivo en situaciones de resolución de problemas: un modelo multidimensional

Tesis inédita de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias Matemáticas, leída el 20-10-20The increasing technological progress has highlighted the importance of problem-solving processes and skills connected to programming methods. Among them, backward reasoning is recognized as a critical issue in advanced mathematics education. This, together with the growing interest in recent years of game-based university education is at the base of this research project. Two objectives are established: on the one hand, to extend the epistemic model of backward reasoning, existing in the mathematical literature, to a cognitive and didactic one; on the other hand, to establish principles for the design of university teaching situations focused on backward reasoning. To reach these objectives, four design experiments using strategy games and mathematical problems are developed. These involved a total of 322 university students, from first year of bachelor to PhD, attending the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain) and the Università di Torino (Italy). They are involved in scientific careers (Mathematics, Mathematics Engineering and Computer Science) and teacher training careers (future mathematics professors in secondary school)...El creciente progreso tecnológico ha puesto de relieve la importancia de los procesos de resolución de problemas y los conocimientos técnicos relacionados con los métodos de programación. Entre ellos, el razonamiento regresivo se reconoce como una cuestión crítica en la enseñanza de las matemáticas avanzada. Esto, junto con el creciente interés en los últimos años de la educación universitaria basada en juegos, es la base de esta investigación. Se establecen dos objetivos: 1) ampliar el modelo epistémico de razonamiento regresivo, existente en la literatura matemática, a uno cognitivo y didáctico, y 2) establecer principios para el diseño de situaciones de enseñanza universitaria centradas en el razonamiento regresivo. Para lograr estos objetivos, se desarrollan cuatro Design experiments utilizando juegos de estrategia y problemas matemáticos. En ellos participaron un total de 322 estudiantes universitarios, desde el primer año de grado hasta el doctorado, procedentes de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid (España) y de la Università di Torino (Italia). Son estudiantes de las ramas científica y de ingeniería (Matemáticas, Ingeniería Matemática e Informática) y en la especialidad de formación de profesores (futuros profesores de matemáticas en la escuela secundaria)...Fac. de Ciencias MatemáticasTRUEunpu

Governing governance:Collective action and rulemaking in EU agricultural and non-agricultural geographical indications

Geographical Indications (‘GIs’) designate a product whose reputation, characteristics and quality are essentially due to their geographical origin. They are identifiers of ‘origin products’, immersed in a specific local natural and socio-cultural ecosystem. Local tangible and intangible assets and the associated reputation are nurtured over time, but they are also vulnerable to erosion. GIs encourage stakeholders to codify arrangements (product specifications) as a response to this problem. The importance of collective action issues in GIs has been demonstrated by interdisciplinary scholarship. However, it is mostly considered extraneous in the legal discourse and in policy prescriptions at the European level. Through a transdisciplinary approach this work combines comparative legal and case study analyses, illustrating the diversity of the protection and valorisation strategies of French and Italian agricultural and non-agricultural origin products.Inspired by the theory and diagnostic frameworks of Elinor Ostrom’s and colleagues for analysing human cooperation for the sustainable governance of tangible and intangible commons, it explores the potential of the conceptual proximity between GIs and the commons reframing key aspects of GI legal theory and embracing the collective action perspective. The analysis of how actors’ interactions in rulemaking for product specification design affects the outcomes, reveals that the interpretation and implementation of national legal rules at the pre-registration and registration phases are not harmonised in Europe. Empirically grounded findings flag legally relevant collective action issues in GI settings and support suggestions for coherent policy transitions, measuring implementation feasibility and avoiding panaceas

Governing governance:Collective action and rulemaking in EU agricultural and non-agricultural geographical indications

Geographical Indications (‘GIs’) designate a product whose reputation, characteristics and quality are essentially due to their geographical origin. They are identifiers of ‘origin products’, immersed in a specific local natural and socio-cultural ecosystem. Local tangible and intangible assets and the associated reputation are nurtured over time, but they are also vulnerable to erosion. GIs encourage stakeholders to codify arrangements (product specifications) as a response to this problem. The importance of collective action issues in GIs has been demonstrated by interdisciplinary scholarship. However, it is mostly considered extraneous in the legal discourse and in policy prescriptions at the European level. Through a transdisciplinary approach this work combines comparative legal and case study analyses, illustrating the diversity of the protection and valorisation strategies of French and Italian agricultural and non-agricultural origin products.Inspired by the theory and diagnostic frameworks of Elinor Ostrom’s and colleagues for analysing human cooperation for the sustainable governance of tangible and intangible commons, it explores the potential of the conceptual proximity between GIs and the commons reframing key aspects of GI legal theory and embracing the collective action perspective. The analysis of how actors’ interactions in rulemaking for product specification design affects the outcomes, reveals that the interpretation and implementation of national legal rules at the pre-registration and registration phases are not harmonised in Europe. Empirically grounded findings flag legally relevant collective action issues in GI settings and support suggestions for coherent policy transitions, measuring implementation feasibility and avoiding panaceas

Neurophysiological correlates underlying social behavioural adjustment of conformity

[eng] Conformity is the act of changing one’s behaviour to adjust to other human beings. It is a crucial social adaptation that happens when people cooperate, where one sacrifices their own perception, expectations, or beliefs to reach convergence with another person. The aim of the present study was to increase the understanding of the neurophysiological underpinnings regarding the social behavioural adjustment of conformity. We start by introducing cooperation and how it is ingrained in human behaviour. Then we explore the different processes that the brain requires for the social behavioural adjustment of conformity. To engage in this social adaptation, a person needs a self-referenced learning mechanism based on a predictive model that helps them track the prediction errors from unexpected events. Also, the brain uses its monitoring and control systems to encode different value functions used in action selection. The use of different learning models in neuroscience, such as reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms, has been a success story identifying learning systems by means of the mapped activity of different regions in the brain. Importantly, experimental paradigms which has been used to study conformity have not been based in a social interaction setting and, hence, the results, cannot be used to explain an inherently social phenomenon. The main goal of the present thesis is to study the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the social behavioural adjustment of conformity and its modulation with repeated interaction. To reach this goal, we have first designed a new experimental task where conformity appears spontaneously between two persons and in a reiterative way. This design exposes learning acquisition processes, which require iterative loops, as well as other cognitive control mechanisms such as feedback processing, value-based decision making and attention. The first study shows that people who previously cooperate increase their level of convergence and report a significantly more satisfying overall experience. In addition, participants learning on their counterparts’ behaviour can be explained using a RL algorithm as opposed to when they do not have previously cooperated. In the second study, we have studied the event-related potentials (ERP) and oscillatory power underlying conformity. ERP results show different levels of cognitive engagement that are associated to distinct levels of conformity. Also, time-frequency analysis shows evidence in theta, alpha and beta related to different functions such as cognitive control, attention and, also, reward processing, supporting the idea that convergence between dyads acts as a social reward. Finally, in the third study, we explored the intra- and inter- oscillatory connectivity between electrodes related to behavioural convergence. In intra-brain oscillatory connectivity coherence, we have found two different dynamics related to attention and executive functions in alpha. Also, we have found that the learning about peer’s behaviour as computed using a RL is mediated by theta oscillatory connectivity. Consequently, combined evidence from Study 2 and Study 3 suggests that both cognitive control and learning computations happening in the social behavioural adaptation of conformity are signalled in theta frequency band. The present work is one of the first studies describing, with credible evidence, that conformity, when this occurs willingly and spontaneously rather than induced, engages different brain activity underlying reward-guided learning, cognitive control, and attention.[spa] La conformidad es el acto de cambiar el comportamiento de uno a favor de ajustarnos a otros seres humanos. Se trata de una adaptación crucial que ocurre cuando la gente coopera, donde uno sacrifica su propia percepción, expectativas o creencias en aras de conseguir una convergencia con la otra persona. El objetivo del presente estudio ha sido tratar de aportar a la comprensión de las estructuras neurofisiológicas que soportan un ajuste social como el de la conformidad. En la primera parte de esta tesis comenzamos hablando de la cooperación y lo profundamente arraigada que está en nuestro comportamiento. Más tarde exploramos diferentes procesos que el cerebro requiere en el ajuste social de la conformidad. Así pues, para involucrarse en esta adaptación social, una persona requiere de un mecanismo de aprendizaje auto-referenciado basado en un modelo predictivo que le ayude a seguir el rastro de los errores de predicción que acompañan a los eventos inesperados. Además, el cerebro usa sus sistemas de control y predicción para codificar diferentes funciones de valor usadas en la selección de acción. El uso de diferentes modelos de aprendizaje en neurociencia, como los algoritmos de aprendizaje por refuerzo (RL), han sido una historia de éxito a la hora de identificar los sistemas de aprendizaje a través del mapeo de la actividad de diferentes regiones del cerebro. Es importante destacar que los paradigmas experimentales que se han usado para estudiar la conformidad no se han basado en entornos de interacción social y que, por lo tanto, sus resultados no pueden usarse para explicar un fenómeno inherentemente social. El objetivo principal de la presente tesis es el estudio de los mecanismos neurofisiológicos que fundamentan el comportamiento de ajuste social de la conformidad y su modulación con la interacción repetida. Para alcanzar este objetivo, primero hemos diseñado una nueva tarea experimental en la que la conformidad aparece de forma espontánea entre dos personas y, además, de forma reiterativa. Este diseño permite exponer tanto los procesos de adquisición del aprendizaje, que requieren de ciclos iterativos, así como otros mecanismos de control cognitivo tales como el procesamiento de la retroalimentación, las tomas de decisiones basadas en procesos valorativos y la atención. El primer estudio nos muestra que la gente que coopera previamente incrementa sus niveles de convergencia y reportan significativamente una experiencia generalmente más satisfactoria en el experimento. Adicionalmente, un modelo de RL nos explica que los participantes tratan de aprender del comportamiento de sus parejas en mayor medida si estos han cooperado previamente. En el segundo estudio, hemos estudiado los potenciales relacionados con eventos (ERP) y el poder de las oscilaciones que sustentan la conformidad. Los estudios de ERP muestran diferentes niveles de implicación cognitiva asociados con diferentes niveles de conformidad. Además, los análisis de tiempo-frecuencia muestran evidencia en theta, alfa y beta relacionados con diferentes funciones como el control cognitivo, la atención, y, también, el procesamiento de la recompensa, apoyando la idea de que la convergencia entre díadas actúa como una recompensa social. Finalmente, en el tercer estudio, exploramos la conectividad oscilatoria intra e inter entre electrodos que se pudieran relacionar con la conducta de convergencia. A propósito de la conectividad oscilatoria coherente intra, hemos hallado dos dinámicas relacionadas con la atención y las funciones ejecutivas en alfa. Asimismo, hemos encontrado que el aprendizaje de la conducta de la pareja computada a través de RL está mediada a través de la conectividad oscilatoria de theta. Consecuentemente, la evidencia combinada entre el estudio 2 y el estudio 3 sugiere que conjuntamente el control cognitivo y las computaciones de aprendizaje que ocurren en la conducta de adaptación social de la conformidad están relacionadas con la actividad de la banda de frecuencia theta. Este trabajo constituye uno de los primeros estudios que describen, con evidencia creíble, que la conformidad, cuando ocurre voluntaria y espontáneamente a diferencia cuando esta es inducida, involucra actividad del cerebro que se fundamenta en el aprendizaje guiado por reforzamiento, el control cognitivo y la atención