Hypernode reduction modulo scheduling

Software pipelining is a loop scheduling technique that extracts parallelism from loops by overlapping the execution of several consecutive iterations. Most prior scheduling research has focused on achieving minimum execution time, without regarding register requirements. Most strategies tend to stretch operand lifetimes because they schedule some operations too early or too late. The paper presents a novel strategy that simultaneously schedules some operations late and other operations early, minimizing all the stretchable dependencies and therefore reducing the registers required by the loop. The key of this strategy is a pre-ordering that selects the order in which the operations will be scheduled. The results show that the method described in this paper performs better than other heuristic methods and almost as well as a linear programming method but requiring much less time to produce the schedules.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Modulo scheduling with reduced register pressure

Software pipelining is a scheduling technique that is used by some product compilers in order to expose more instruction level parallelism out of innermost loops. Module scheduling refers to a class of algorithms for software pipelining. Most previous research on module scheduling has focused on reducing the number of cycles between the initiation of consecutive iterations (which is termed II) but has not considered the effect of the register pressure of the produced schedules. The register pressure increases as the instruction level parallelism increases. When the register requirements of a schedule are higher than the available number of registers, the loop must be rescheduled perhaps with a higher II. Therefore, the register pressure has an important impact on the performance of a schedule. This paper presents a novel heuristic module scheduling strategy that tries to generate schedules with the lowest II, and, from all the possible schedules with such II, it tries to select that with the lowest register requirements. The proposed method has been implemented in an experimental compiler and has been tested for the Perfect Club benchmarks. The results show that the proposed method achieves an optimal II for at least 97.5 percent of the loops and its compilation time is comparable to a conventional top-down approach, whereas the register requirements are lower. In addition, the proposed method is compared with some other existing methods. The results indicate that the proposed method performs better than other heuristic methods and almost as well as linear programming methods, which obtain optimal solutions but are impractical for product compilers because their computing cost grows exponentially with the number of operations in the loop body.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Distributed Symmetry Breaking in Hypergraphs

Fundamental local symmetry breaking problems such as Maximal Independent Set (MIS) and coloring have been recognized as important by the community, and studied extensively in (standard) graphs. In particular, fast (i.e., logarithmic run time) randomized algorithms are well-established for MIS and $\Delta +1$-coloring in both the LOCAL and CONGEST distributed computing models. On the other hand, comparatively much less is known on the complexity of distributed symmetry breaking in {\em hypergraphs}. In particular, a key question is whether a fast (randomized) algorithm for MIS exists for hypergraphs. In this paper, we study the distributed complexity of symmetry breaking in hypergraphs by presenting distributed randomized algorithms for a variety of fundamental problems under a natural distributed computing model for hypergraphs. We first show that MIS in hypergraphs (of arbitrary dimension) can be solved in $O(\log^2 n)$ rounds ($n$ is the number of nodes of the hypergraph) in the LOCAL model. We then present a key result of this paper --- an $O(\Delta^{\epsilon}\text{polylog}(n))$-round hypergraph MIS algorithm in the CONGEST model where $\Delta$ is the maximum node degree of the hypergraph and $\epsilon > 0$ is any arbitrarily small constant. To demonstrate the usefulness of hypergraph MIS, we present applications of our hypergraph algorithm to solving problems in (standard) graphs. In particular, the hypergraph MIS yields fast distributed algorithms for the {\em balanced minimal dominating set} problem (left open in Harris et al. [ICALP 2013]) and the {\em minimal connected dominating set problem}. We also present distributed algorithms for coloring, maximal matching, and maximal clique in hypergraphs.Comment: Changes from the previous version: More references adde

Hierarchical clustered register file organization for VLIW processors

Technology projections indicate that wire delays will become one of the biggest constraints in future microprocessor designs. To avoid long wire delays and therefore long cycle times, processor cores must be partitioned into components so that most of the communication is done locally. In this paper, we propose a novel register file organization for VLIW cores that combines clustering with a hierarchical register file organization. Functional units are organized in clusters, each one with a local first level register file. The local register files are connected to a global second level register file, which provides access to memory. All intercluster communications are done through the second level register file. This paper also proposes MIRS-HC, a novel modulo scheduling technique that simultaneously performs instruction scheduling, cluster selection, inserts communication operations, performs register allocation and spill insertion for the proposed organization. The results show that although more cycles are required to execute applications, the execution time is reduced due to a shorter cycle time. In addition, the combination of clustering and hierarchy provides a larger design exploration space that trades-off performance and technology requirements.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Widening resources: a cost-effective technique for aggressive ILP architectures

The inherent instruction-level parallelism (ILP) of current applications (specially those based on floating point computations) has driven hardware designers and compilers writers to investigate aggressive techniques for exploiting program parallelism at the lowest level. To execute more operations per cycle, many processors are designed with growing degrees of resource replication (buses and functional units). However the high cost in terms of area and cycle time of this technique precludes the use of high degrees of replication. An alternative to resource replication is resource widening, that has also been used in some recent designs, in which the width of the resources is increased. In this paper we evaluate a broad set of design alternatives that combine both replication and widening. For each alternative we perform an estimation of the ILP limits (including the impact of spill code for several register file configurations) and the cost in terms of area and access time of the register file. We also perform a technological projection for the next 10 years in order to foresee the possible implementable alternatives. From this study we conclude that if the cost is taken into account, the best performance is obtained when combining certain degrees of replication and widening in the hardware resources. The results have been obtained from a large number of inner loops from numerical programs scheduled for VLIW architecturesPeer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Software Pipelining in the LLVM Compiler

Tahle práce pojednává o návrhu a implementaci techniky programového zřetězení aneb Software pipelining, optimalizaci cyklů v programu, která se snaží plně využít paralelismus na úrovni instrukcí. To dosahuje plánovaním instrukcí způsobem, aby se jednotlivé iterace cyklu překrývaly a bylo je možné vykonávat zřetězeně. Optimalizace takhle zvyšuje rychlost výsledného programu. Je tu popsaný návrh a implementace algoritmu Swing Modulo Scheduling, efektivní metody pro nacházení optimálního plánu pro zřetězení cyklů. Práce byla vytvořena jako součást většího projektu a to vývoje Codasip Framework. Jeho součástí je překladač jazyka C do jazyka symbolických instrukcí vytvořený nad překladačovou architekturou LLVM. V tomto překladači je implementován výsledek této práce.This thesis discusses a design and implementation of the Software Pipelining, a optimization technique of loops in a program, which tries to exploit instruction-level parallelism. It is achieved by scheduling instructions in a way to overlap iterations of the loop and therefore execute them in a pipeline. This way optimization speeds up the final program. There is a detailed description of design and implementation of Swing Modulo Scheduling algorithm, an effective and efficient method for finding near-optimal plans for software-pipelined loops. This work has been done as a part of a larger project, the development of Codasip Framework. Part of this framework is the retargetable C compiler based on compiler architecture LLVM, in which this work is implemented.

Recursos anchos: una técnica de bajo coste para explotar paralelismo agresivo en códigos numéricos

Els bucles son la part que més temps consumeix en les aplicacions numèriques. El rendiment dels bucles està limitat tant pels recursos oferts per l'arquitectura com per les recurrències del bucle en la computació. Per executar més operacions per cicle, els processadors actuals es dissenyen amb graus creixents de replicació de recursos (tècnica de replicació) para ports de memòria i unitats funcionals. En canvi, el gran cost en termes d'àrea i temps de cicle d'aquesta tècnica limita tenir alts graus de replicació: alts valors en temps de cicle contraresten els guanys deguts al decrement en el nombre de cicles, mentre que alts valors en l'àrea requerida poden portar a configuracions impossibles d'implementar. Una alternativa a la replicació de recursos, és fer los més amples (tècnica que anomenem "widening"), i que ha estat usada en alguns dissenys recents. Amb aquesta tècnica, l'amplitud dels recursos s'amplia, fent una mateixa operació sobre múltiples dades. Per altra banda, alguns microprocessadors escalars de propòsit general han estat implementats amb unitats de coma flotants que implementen la instrucció sumar i multiplicar unificada (tècnica de fusió), el que redueix la latència de la operació combinada, tanmateix com el nombre de recursos utilitzats. A aquest treball s'avaluen un ampli conjunt d'alternatives de disseny de processadors VLIW que combinen les tres tècniques. S'efectua una projecció tecnològica de les noves generacions de processadors per predir les possibles alternatives implementables. Com a conclusió, demostrem que tenint en compte el cost, combinar certs graus de replicació i "widening" als recursos hardware és més efectiu que aplicar únicament replicació. Així mateix, confirmem que fer servir unitats que fusionen multiplicació i suma pot tenir un impacte molt significatiu en l'increment de rendiment en futures arquitectures de processadors a un cost molt raonable.Loops are the main time-consuming part of numerical applications. The performance of the loops is limited either by the resources offered by the architecture or by recurrences in the computation. To execute more operations per cycle, current processors are designed with growing degrees of resource replication (replication technique) for memory ports and functional units. However, the high cost in terms of area and cycle time of this technique precludes the use of high degrees of replication. High values for the cycle time may clearly offset any gain in terms of number of execution cycles. High values for the area may lead to an unimplementable configuration. An alternative to resource replication is resource widening (widening technique), which has also been used in some recent designs in which the width of the resources is increased (i.e., a single operation is performed over multiple data). Moreover, several general-purpose superscalar microprocessors have been implemented with multiply-add fused floating point units (fusion technique), which reduces the latency of the combined operation and the number of resources used. On this thesis, we evaluate a broad set of VLIW processor design alternatives that combine the three techniques. We perform a technological projection for the next processor generations in order to foresee the possible implementable alternatives. From this study, we conclude that if the cost is taken into account, combining certain degrees of replication and widening in the hardware resources is more effective than applying only replication. Also, we confirm that multiply-add fused units will have a significant impact in raising the performance of future processor architectures with a reasonable increase in cost

Loop pipelining with resource and timing constraints

Developing efficient programs for many of the current parallel computers is not easy due to the architectural complexity of those machines. The wide variety of machine organizations often makes it more difficult to port an existing program than to reprogram it completely. Therefore, powerful translators are necessary to generate effective code and free the programmer from concerns about the specific characteristics of the target machine. This work focuses on techniques to be used by an important class of translators, whose objective is to transform sequential programs into equivalent more parallel programs. The transformations are performed at instruction level in order to exploit low level parallelism and increase memory locality.Most of the current applications are programmed in languages which do not allow us to express parallelism between high-level sentences (as Pascal, C or Fortran). Furthermore, a lot of applications written ten or more years ago are still used today, and it is not feasible to rewrite such applications for many reasons (not only technical reasons, but also economic ones). Translators enable programmers to write the application in a familiar sequential programming language, without concerning their selves with the architecture of the target machine. Current compilers for parallel architectures not only translate a program written on a high-level language to the appropriate machine language, but also perform some transformations in the final code in order to execute the program in a more parallel way. The transformations improve the performance in the execution of the program by making use of the knowledge that the compiler has about the machine architecture. The semantics of the program remain intact after any transformation.Experiments show that limiting parallelization to basic blocks not included in loops limits maximum speedup. This is because loops often comprise a large portion of the parallelism available to be exploited in a program. For this reason, a lot of effort has been devoted in the recent years to parallelize loop execution. Several parallel computer architectures and compilation techniques have been proposed to exploit such a parallelism at different granularities. Multiprocessors exploit coarse grained parallelism by distributing entire loop iterations to different processors. Systems oriented to the high-level synthesis (HLS) of VLSI circuits, superscalar processors and very long instruction word (VLIW) processors exploit fine-grained parallelism at instruction level. This work addresses fine-grained parallelization of loops addressed to the HLS of VLSI circuits. Two algorithms are proposed for resource constraints and for timing constraints. An algorithm to reduce the number of registers required to execute a loop in a given architecture is also proposed

Accelerating Halide on an FPGA by using CIRCT and Calyx as an intermediate step to go from a high-level and software-centric IRs down to RTL

Image processing and, more generally, array processing play an essential role in modern life: from applying filters to the images that we upload to social media to running object detection algorithms on self-driving cars. Optimizing these algorithms can be complex and often results in non-portable code. The Halide language provides a simple way to write image and array processing algorithms by separating the algorithm definition (what needs to be executed) from its execution schedule (how it is executed), delivering state-of-the-art performance that exceeds hand-tuned parallel and vectorized code. Due to the inherent parallel nature of these algorithms, FPGAs present an attractive acceleration platform. While previous work has added an RTL code generator to Halide, and utilized other heterogeneous computing languages as an intermediate step, these projects are no longer maintained. MLIR is an attractive solution, allowing the generation of code that can target multiple devices, such as parallelized and vectorized CPU code, OpenMP, and CUDA. CIRCT builds on top of MLIR to convert generic MLIR code to register transfer level (RTL) languages by using Calyx, a new intermediate language (IL) for compiling high-level programs into hardware designs. This thesis presents a novel flow that implements an MLIR code generator for Halide that generates RTL code, adding the necessary wrappers to execute that code on Xilinx FPGA devices. Additionally, it implements a Halide runtime using the Xilinx Runtime (XRT), enabling seamless execution of the generated Halide RTL kernels. While this thesis provides initial support for running Halide kernels and not all features and optimizations are supported, it also details the future work needed to improve the performance of the generated RTL kernels. The proposed flow serves as a foundation for further research and development in the field of hardware acceleration for image and array processing applications using Halide

Smart memory management through locality analysis

Las memorias caché fueron incorporadas en los microprocesadores ya desde los primeros tiempos, y representan la solución más común para tratar la diferencia de velocidad entre el procesador y la memoria. Sin embargo, muchos estudios señalan que la capacidad de almacenamiento de la caché es malgastada muchas veces, lo cual tiene un impacto directo en el rendimiento del procesador. Aunque una caché está diseñada para explotar diferentes tipos de localidad, todas la referencias a memoria son tratadas de la misma forma, ignorando comportamientos particulares de localidad. El uso restringido de la información de localidad para cada acceso a memoria puede limitar la eficiencia de la cache. En esta tesis se demuestra como un análisis de localidad de datos puede ayudar al investigador a entender dónde y porqué ocurren los fallos de caché, y proponer entonces diferentes técnicas que hacen uso de esta información con el objetivo de mejorar el rendimiento de la memoria caché. Proponemos técnicas en las cuales la información de localidad obtenida por el analizador de localidad es pasada desde el compilador al hardware a través del ISA para guiar el manejo de los accesos a memoria.Hemos desarrollado un análisis estático de localidad de datos. Este análisis está basado en los vectores de reuso y contiene los tres típicos pasos: reuso, volumen y análisis de interferencias. Comparado con trabajos previos, tanto el análisis de volúmenes como el de interferencias ha sido mejorado utilizando información de profiling así como un análisis de interferencias más preciso. El analizador de localidad de datos propuesto ha sido incluido como un paso más en un compilador de investigación. Los resultados demuestran que, para aplicaciones numéricas, el análisis es muy preciso y el overhead de cálculo es bajo. Este análisis es la base para todas las otras partes de la tesis. Además, para algunas propuestas en la última parte de la tesis, hemos usado un análisis de localidad de datos basado en las ecuaciones de fallos de cache. Este análisis, aunque requiere más tiempo de cálculo, es más preciso y más apropiado para cachés asociativas por conjuntos. El uso de dos análisis de localidad diferentes también demuestra que las propuestas arquitectónicas de esta tesis son independientes del análisis de localidad particular utilizado.Después de mostrar la precisión del análisis, lo hemos utilizado para estudiar el comportamiento de localidad exhibido por los programas SPECfp95. Este tipo de análisis es necesario antes de proponer alguna nueva técnica ya que ayuda al investigador a entender porqué ocurren los fallos de caché. Se muestra que con el análisis propuesto se puede estudiar de forma muy precisa la localidad de un programa y detectar donde estan los "puntos negros" así como la razón de estos fallos en cache. Este estudio del comportamiento de localidad de diferentes programas es la base y motivación para las diferentes técnicas propuestas en esta tesis para mejorar el rendimiento de la memoria.Así, usando el análisis de localidad de datos y basándonos en los resultados obtenidos después de analizar el comportamiento de localidad de un conjunto de programas, proponemos utilizar este análisis con el objetivo de guiar tres técnicas diferentes: (i) manejo de caches multimódulo, (ii) prebúsqueda software para bucles con planificación módulo, y (iii) planificación de instrucciones de arquitecturas VLIW clusterizadas.El primer uso del análisis de localidad propuesto es el manejo de una novedosa organización de caché. Esta caché soporta bypass y/o está compuesta por diferentes módulos, cada uno orientado a explotar un tipo particular de localidad. La mayor diferencia de esta caché con respecto propuestas previas es que la decisión de "cachear" o no, o en qué módulo un nuevo bloque es almacenado, está controlado por algunos bits en las instrucciones de memoria ("pistas" de localidad). Estas "pistas" (hints) son fijadas en tiempo de compilación utilizando el análisis de localidad propuesto. Así, la complejidad del manejo de esta caché se mantiene bajo ya que no requiere ningún hardware adicional. Los resultados demuestran que cachés más pequeñas con un manejo más inteligente pueden funcionar tan bien (o mejor) que cachés convencionales más grandes.Hemos utilizado también el análisis de localidad para estudiar la interacción entre la segmentación software y la prebúsqueda software. La segmentación software es una técnica muy efectiva para la planificación de código en bucles (principalmente en aplicaciones numéricas en procesadores VLIW). El esquema más popular de prebúsqueda software se llama planificación módulo. Muchos trabajos sobre planificación módulo se pueden encontrar en la literatura, pero casi todos ellos consideran una suposición crítica: consideran un comportamiento optimista de la cache (en otras palabras, usan siempre la latencia de acierto cuando planifican instrucciones de memoria). Así, los resultados que presentan ignoran los efectos del bloqueo debido a dependencias con instrucciones de memoria. En esta parte de la tesis mostramos que esta suposición puede llevar a planificaciones cuyo rendimiento es bastante más bajo cuando se considera una memoria real. Nosotros proponemos un algoritmo para planificar instrucciones de memoria en bucles con planificación módulo. Hemos estudiado diferentes estrategias de prebúsqueda software y finalmente hemos propuesto un algoritmo que realiza prebúsqueda basándose en el análisis de localidad y en la forma del grafo de dependencias del bucle. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que el esquema propuesto mejora el rendimiento de las otras heurísticas ya que obtiene un mejor compromiso entre tiempo de cálculo y de bloqueo.Finalmente, el último uso del análisis de localidad estudiado en esta tesis es para guiar un planificador de instrucciones para arquitecturas VLIW clusterizadas. Las arquitecturas clusterizadas están siendo una tendencia común en el diseño de procesadores empotrados/DSP. Típicamente, el núcleo de estos procesadores está basado en un diseño VLIW el cual particiona tanto el banco de registros como las unidades funcionales. En este trabajo vamos un paso más allá y también hacemos la partición de la memoria caché. En este caso, tanto las comunicaciones entre registros como entre memorias han de ser consideradas. Nosotros proponemos un algoritmo que realiza la partición del grafo así como la planificación de instrucciones en un único paso en lugar de hacerlo secuencialmente, lo cual se demuestra que es más efectivo. Este algoritmo es mejorado añadiendo una análisis basado en las ecuaciones de fallos de cache con el objetivo de guiar en la planificación de las instrucciones de memoria para reducir no solo comunicaciones entre registros, sino también fallos de cache.Cache memories were incorporated in microprocessors in the early times and represent the most common solution to deal with the gap between processor and memory speeds. However, many studies point out that the cache storage capacity is wasted many times, which means a direct impact in processor performance. Although a cache is designed to exploit different types of locality, all memory references are handled in the same way, ignoring particular locality behaviors. The restricted use of the locality information for each memory access can limit the effectivity of the cache. In this thesis we show how a data locality analysis can help the researcher to understand where and why cache misses occur, and then to propose different techniques that make use of this information in order to improve the performance of cache memory. We propose techniques in which locality information obtained by the locality analyzer is passed from the compiler to the hardware through the ISA to guide the management of memory accesses.We have developed a static data locality analysis. This analysis is based on reuse vectors and performs the three typical steps: reuse, volume and interfere analysis. Compared with previous works, both volume and interference analysis have been improved by using profile information as well as a more precise inter-ference analysis. The proposed data locality analyzer has been inserted as another pass in a research compiler. Results show that for numerical applications the analysis is very accurate and the computing overhead is low. This analysis is the base for all other parts of the thesis. In addition, for some proposals in the last part of the thesis we have used a data locality analysis based on cache miss equations. This analysis, although more time consuming, is more accurate and more appropriate for set-associative caches. The usage of two different locality analyzers also shows that the architectural proposals of this thesis are independent from the particular locality analysis.After showing the accuracy of the analysis, we have used it to study the locality behavior exhibited by the SPECfp95 programs. This kind of analysis is necessary before proposing any new technique since can help the researcher to understand why cache misses occur. We show that with the proposed analysis we can study very accurately the locality of a program and detect where the hot spots are as well as the reason for these misses. This study of the locality behavior of different programs is the base and motivation for the different techniques proposed in this thesis to improve the memory performance.Thus, using the data locality analysis and based on the results obtained after analyzing the locality behavior of a set of programs, we propose to use this analysis in order to guide three different techniques: (i) management of multi-module caches, (ii) software prefetching for modulo scheduled loops, and (iii) instruction scheduling for clustered VLIW architectures.The first use of the proposed data locality analysis is to manage a novel cache organization. This cache supports bypassing and/or is composed of different modules, each one oriented to exploit a particular type of locality. The main difference of this cache with respect to previous proposals is that the decision of caching or not, or in which module a new fetched block is allocated is managed by some bits in memory instructions (locality hints). These hints are set at compile time using the proposed locality analysis. Thus, the management complexity of this cache is kept low since no additional hardware is required. Results show that smaller caches with a smart management can perform as well as (or better than) bigger conventional caches.We have also used the locality analysis to study the interaction between software pipelining and software prefetching. Software pipelining has been shown to be a very effective scheduling technique for loops (mainly in numerical applications for VLIW processors). The most popular scheme for software pipelining is called modulo scheduling. Many works on modulo scheduling can be found in the literature, but almost all of them make a critical assumption: they consider an optimistic behavior of the cache (in other words, they use the hit latency when a memory instruction is scheduled). Thus, the results they present ignore the effect of stalls due to dependences with memory instructions. In this part of the thesis we show that this assumption can lead to schedules whose performance is rather low when a real memory is considered. Thus, we propose an algorithm to schedule memory instructions in modulo scheduled loops. We have studied different software prefetching strategies and finally proposed an algorithm that performs prefetching based on the locality analysis and the shape of the loop dependence graph. Results obtained shows that the proposed scheme outperforms other heuristic approaches since it achieves a better trade-off between compute and stall time than the others. Finally, the last use of the locality analysis studied in this thesis is to guide an instruction scheduler for a clustered VLIW architecture. Clustered architectures are becoming a common trend in the design of embedded/DSP processors. Typically, the core of these processors is based on a VLIW design which partitionates both register file and functional units. In this work we go a step beyond and also make a partition of the cache memory. Then, both inter-register and inter-memory communications have to be taken into account. We propose an algorithm that performs both graph partition and instruction scheduling in a single step instead of doing it sequentially, which is shown to be more effective. This algorithm is improved by adding an analysis based on the cache miss equations in order to guide the scheduling of memory instructions in clusters with the aim of reducing not only inter-register communications, but also cache misses