Understanding analogical reasoning : viewpoints from psychology and related disciplines

Analogy and metaphor have a long history of study in linguistics, education, philosophy and psychology. Consensus over what analogy is or how analogy functions in language and thought, however, has been elusive. This paper, the first in a two part series, examines these various research traditions, attempting to bring out major lines of agreement over the role of analogy in individual human experience. As well as being a general literature review which may be helpful for newcomers to the study of analogy, this paper attempts to extract from these literatures existing theories, models and concepts which may be interesting or useful for computational studies of analogical reasoning

Information and Experience in Metaphor: A Perspective From Computer Analysis

Novel linguistic metaphor can be seen as the assignment of attributes to a topic through a vehicle belonging to another domain. The experience evoked by the vehicle is a significant aspect of the meaning of the metaphor, especially for abstract metaphor, which involves more than mere physical similarity. In this article I indicate, through description of a specific model, some possibilities as well as limitations of computer processing directed toward both informative and experiential/affective aspects of metaphor. A background to the discussion is given by other computational treatments of metaphor analysis, as well as by some questions about metaphor originating in other disciplines. The approach on which the present metaphor analysis model is based is consistent with a theory of language comprehension that includes both the intent of the originator and the effect on the recipient of the metaphor. The model addresses the dual problem of (a) determining potentially salient properties of the vehicle concept, and (b) defining extensible symbolic representations of such properties, including affective and other connotations. The nature of the linguistic analysis underlying the model suggests how metaphoric expression of experiential components in abstract metaphor is dependent on the nominalization of actions and attributes. The inverse process of undoing such nominalizations in computer analysis of metaphor constitutes a translation of a metaphor to a more literal expression within the metaphor-nonmetaphor dichotomy

Are abstract concepts like dinosaur feathers?

Ewolucja ludzkiego układu nerwowego pozwoliła nam na wykonywanie niezwykle skomplikowanych czynności takich jak obliczenia matematyczne, analizy gospodarcze czy choćby napisanie tej książki. Mimo to wciąż nie jesteśmy pewni jak i dlaczego człowiek nabył zdolność abstrakcyjnego myślenia. Jedna z teorii sugeruje, że myślenie abstrakcyjne i konkretne opierają się na tym samym mechanizmie: doświadczeniu. Według tej teorii, nazwanej teorią ucieleśnionego poznania, świat rozumiemy dzięki doświadczeniom fizycznym. Kiedy opisujemy jakiś argument jako "chwiejny" albo pogląd jako "bezpodstawny" to korzystamy z doświadczeń, które zdobyliśmy bawiąc się kolckami jako dzieci. W tej książce zadaję postawione przez psychologa Daniela Casasanto pytanie: „czy pojęcia abstrakcyjne są jak pióra dinozaurów”. Jakie procesy ewolucyjne doprowadziły do tego, że jesteśmy w stanie opisać nawet bardzo abstrakcyjne zagadnienia w odniesieniu do konkretnych zjawisk? Przedstawiając wyniki badań nad mową i gestem osób widzących, słabowidzących oraz niewidomych, staram się pokazać, że podstawy zrozumienia wielu pojęć abstrakcyjnych szukać można w geście

The computer comprehension of systematic metaphor

Digitisation of this thesis was sponsored by Arcadia Fund, a charitable fund of Lisbet Rausing and Peter Baldwin

Language and cognition behind simile construction: A Python-powered corpus research

Despite the recognised role of similes in cognitive and communicative processes, there is a limited understanding of their construction and use in specific contexts, such as online food reviews. The study aims to explore the use of the ‘like + gerund’ simile pattern within the Extrinsic Food-Related Frame (FrF) – comparisons with inedible objects – in online food reviews and to understand the cognitive mechanisms guiding this specific form of simile construction and interpretation. To that end, the study addresses three research questions. How do reviewers use ‘like + gerund’ similes within the Extrinsic FrF to express their perceptions and experiences? What cognitive mechanisms underpin this specific form of simile construction and interpretation? Do these hyperbolically contrastive similes function as a form of aggressive narrative? The study employed a Python-powered corpus analysis of the Amazon Fine Foods Reviews dataset, focusing on ‘like + gerund’ simile detection, refinement, and frame detection, followed by cognitive mechanism identification, allowing for a systematic exploration of the cognitive mechanisms behind simile construction within the Extrinsic FrF. Study findings suggest that reviewers often use these similes to express striking or unexpected comparisons with inedible objects, emphasising their perceptions and experiences in an engaging and memorable way. Further, the analysis identified several cognitive mechanisms underpinning this unique form of simile construction and interpretation, suggesting a complex interplay between language, cognition, and personal and cultural experiences. The study also found that these hyperbolically contrastive similes can potentially function as a form of aggressive narrative. Such linguistic aggression, however, is not viewed as necessarily harmful or negative, as it is often a tool used by reviewers to express their experiences more vividly and persuasively. Study results have exposed how figurative language, particularly similes, shape our cognitive and communicative processes, expanding our understanding of the interplay between language, cognition, and consumer behaviour in specific contexts. This has both theoretical implications for cognitive linguistics and metaphor theory, and practical implications for narrative construction in online reviews

The Access Paradox in Analogical Reasoning and Transfer: Whither Invariance?

Despite the burgeoning research in recent years on what is called analogical reasoning and transfer, the problem of how invariant or similarity relations are fundamentally accessed is typically either unrecognized, or ignored in computational cognitive science and artificial intelligence. This problematic is not a new one, being outlined by the epistemological learning paradox found in Plato’s Meno. In order to understand the analogical-access problematic, it is suggested that the concept of analogical reasoning needs to be reconceptualized as a subset of a higher order domain including the lexical concept metaphor, isomorphic relation in mathematics, the concept of homology in biology, stimulus generalization in psychology, transfer of learning in education, and transposition phenomena in perception, as all share the problem of how invariance relations are generated and accessed. A solution is suggested based on two specific evolutionary and neurological models, coupled with findings regarding the cognitive importance of knowledge-base. The paper constitutes a reciprocal complementarity theory to a previous paper on metaphor, suggesting the neurological origins and a recon¬ceptualization of what are commonly called analogical and metaphorical reasoning. The paper also introduces a higher order form of analogical reasoning called analogical progression. Implications for research on analogical reasoning are discussed indicating the need for a paradigm shift in analogical reasoning research. The paper concludes with a four-stage model of analogical access

Are abstract concepts like dinosaur feathers? Objectification as a conceptual tool: evidence from language and gesture of English and Polish native speakers

Studies based on the Contemporary Theory of Metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999) usually identify conceptual metaphors by analysing linguistic expressions and creating a post hoc interpretation of the findings. This method has been questioned for a variety of reasons, including its circularity (Müller, 2008), lack of falsifiability (Vervaeke & Kennedy, 1996, 2004), and lack of predictive power (Ritchie, 2003). It has been argued that CTM requires additional constraints to improve its applicability for empirical research (Gibbs, 2011; Ritchie, 2003). This paper sets out to propose additional methodological structure to CTM, a theory of conceptual metaphor in which much of abstract thought is generated by metaphorical mapping from embodied experience (Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez & Pérez Hernández, 2011). Introducing Objectification Theory defined by Szwedek (2002, 2007, 2011) ameliorates a number of methodological issues in CTM. First, the embodiment claim of CTM in its current form cannot be empirically proven incorrect (Vervaeke & Kennedy, 2004) as any mapping within it is possible (although only some actually happen). Objectification introduces pre-metaphorical structure of the kind suggested by Glucksberg (2001), constraining source and target domain selection, predicting which mappings are more likely to happen. Second, while many claim that metaphors trace back to a literal concept based on embodied physical experience (Gibbs, Costa Lima, & Francozo, 2004), it is unclear what criteria are used to define „physical”. Metaphorical domains are often described using the terms „abstract” and „concrete”, Objectification proposes objective criteria for deciding whether a concept is experientially grounded. Finally, Objectification provides grounds for introducing a hierarchical framework for metaphor typology, preventing post-hoc addition of metaphor types if and when suitable for the explanation of a phenomenon; thus increasing the consistency of the CTM framework, both internally and with other cognitive science disciplines. This thesis focuses on providing evidence for Objectification Theory and identifying its applications in metaphor and gesture research

Understanding the role of visual metaphors in emerging media arts research and practice

The concept of metaphor has made significant contributions to expanding our horizons and range of knowledge and experience over the centuries. Using the associations between source and target domains, metaphors enable rich expressions in arts and culture, from literature, painting, and music to user interface design and media arts. Metaphors enable us to integrate disparate entities and bring new perspectives into existence by allowing us to understand and experience one in terms of another. Visual metaphors become significant and effective tools, from visual communication to graphical user interface design. Because visual metaphors are created by transferring some part of the properties of source domain to target domain using various visual grammars and design principles. It enables designers to express and enhance the meaning of the design outcomes, which are the by-product of a metaphorical thinking process. Despite the significance and prevalence of metaphors in the visual domain, previous research has tended to focus on the effectiveness and efficiency that visual metaphors can generate at a surface level. Our understanding of the role and impact of visual metaphor at a conceptual, cognitive level is still limited. Therefore, this dissertation aims to propose a conceptual framework that allows for the creation of a visual metaphor with a better design rationale to transform the significance of a verbal metaphor into a visualization to achieve various design goals. The framework of this study was gradually developed through a series of experimental design projects serving different design goals, such as knowledge representation, aesthetic experiences, and kinesthetic empathy. We further conducted user studies to examine what design considerations are involved and what types of cognitive operations are performed during the transformation process using critical task analysis for validation. With an emphasis on visual metaphor creation, this study also aims to position our work in the field of metaphor research by contributing to a more comprehensive explanation on how a verbal metaphor can be transformed into a visual space. Additionally, this study relates the design theories of metaphor comprehension and generation to the domain of emerging media arts and art and cultural informatics