Neuronal oscillations: from single-unit activity to emergent dynamics and back

L’objectiu principal d’aquesta tesi és avançar en la comprensió del processament d’informació en xarxes neuronals en presència d’oscil lacions subumbrals. La majoria de neurones propaguen la seva activitat elèctrica a través de sinapsis químiques que són activades, exclusivament, quan el corrent elèctric que les travessa supera un cert llindar. És per aquest motiu que les descàrregues ràpides i intenses produïdes al soma neuronal, els anomenats potencials d’acció, són considerades la unitat bàsica d’informació neuronal, és a dir, el senyal mínim i necessari per a iniciar la comunicació entre dues neurones. El codi neuronal és entès, doncs, com un llenguatge binari que expressa qualsevol missatge (estímul sensorial, memòries, etc.) en un tren de potencials d’acció. Tanmateix, cap funció cognitiva rau en la dinàmica d’una única neurona. Circuits de milers de neurones connectades entre sí donen lloc a determinats ritmes, palesos en registres d’activitat colectiva com els electroencefalogrames (EEG) o els potencials de camp local (LFP). Si els potencials d’acció de cada cèl lula, desencadenats per fluctuacions estocàstiques de les corrents sinàptiques, no assolissin un cert grau de sincronia, no apareixeria aquesta periodicitat a nivell de xarxa. Per tal de poder entendre si aquests ritmes intervenen en el codi neuronal hem estudiat tres situacions. Primer, en el Capítol 2, hem mostrat com una cadena oberta de neurones amb un potencial de membrana intrínsecament oscil latori filtra un senyal periòdic arribant per un dels extrems. La resposta de cada neurona (pulsar o no pulsar) depèn de la seva fase, de forma que cada una d’elles rep un missatge filtrat per la precedent. A més, cada potencial d’acció presinàptic provoca un canvi de fase en la neurona postsinàptica que depèn de la seva posició en l’espai de fases. Els períodes d’entrada capaços de sincronitzar les oscil lacions subumbrals són aquells que mantenen la fase d’arribada dels potencials d’acció fixa al llarg de la cadena. Per tal de què el missatge arribi intacte a la darrera neurona cal, a més a més, que aquesta fase permeti la descàrrega del voltatge transmembrana. En segon cas, hem estudiat una xarxa neuronal amb connexions tant a veïns propers com de llarg abast, on les oscil lacions subumbrals emergeixen de l’activitat col lectiva reflectida en els corrents sinàptics (o equivalentment en el LFP). Les neurones inhibidores aporten un ritme a l’excitabilitat de la xarxa, és a dir, que els episodis en què la inhibició és baixa, la probabilitat d’una descàrrega global de la població neuronal és alta. En el Capítol 3 mostrem com aquest ritme implica l’aparició d’una bretxa en la freqüència de descàrrega de les neurones: o bé polsen espaiadament en el temps o bé en ràfegues d’elevada intensitat. La fase del LFP determina l’estat de la xarxa neuronal codificant l’activitat de la població: els mínims indiquen la descàrrega simultània de moltes neurones que, ocasionalment, han superat el llindar d’excitabilitat degut a un decreixement global de la inhibició, mentre que els màxims indiquen la coexistència de ràfegues en diferents punts de la xarxa degut a decreixements locals de la inhibició en estats globals d’excitació. Aquesta dinàmica és possible gràcies al domini de la inhibició sobre l’excitació. En el Capítol 4 considerem acoblament entre dues xarxes neuronals per tal d’estudiar la interacció entre ritmes diferents. Les oscil lacions indiquen recurrència en la sincronització de l’activitat col lectiva, de manera que durant aquestes finestres temporals una població optimitza el seu impacte en una xarxa diana. Quan el ritme de la població receptora i el de l’emissora difereixen significativament, l’eficiència en la comunicació decreix, ja que les fases de màxima resposta de cada senyal LFP no mantenen una diferència constant entre elles. Finalment, en el Capítol 5 hem estudiat com les oscil lacions col lectives pròpies de l’estat de son donen lloc al fenomen de coherència estocàstica. Per a una intensitat òptima del soroll, modulat per l’excitabilitat de la xarxa, el LFP assoleix una regularitat màxima donant lloc a un període refractari de la població neuronal. En resum, aquesta Tesi mostra escenaris d’interacció entre els potencials d’acció, característics de la dinàmica de neurones individuals, i les oscil lacions subumbrals, fruit de l’acoblament entre les cèl lules i ubiqües en la dinàmica de poblacions neuronals. Els resultats obtinguts aporten funcionalitat a aquests ritmes emergents, agents sincronitzadors i moduladors de les descàrregues neuronals i reguladors de la comunicació entre xarxes neuronals.The main objective of this thesis is to better understand information processing in neuronal networks in the presence of subthreshold oscillations. Most neurons propagate their electrical activity via chemical synapses, which are only activated when the electric current that passes through them surpasses a certain threshold. Therefore, fast and intense discharges produced at the neuronal soma (the action potentials or spikes) are considered the basic unit of neuronal information. The neuronal code is understood, then, as a binary language that expresses any message (sensory stimulus, memories, etc.) in a train of action potentials. Circuits of thousands of interconnected neurons give rise to certain rhythms, revealed in collective activity measures such as electroencephalograms (EEG) and local field potentials (LFP). Synchronization of action potentials of each cell, triggered by stochastic fluctuations of the synaptic currents, cause this periodicity at the network level.To understand whether these rhythms are involved in the neuronal code we studied three situations. First, in Chapter 2, we showed how an open chain of neurons with an intrinsically oscillatory membrane potential filters a periodic signal coming from one of its ends. The response of each neuron (to spike or not) depends on its phase, so that each cell receives a message filtered by the preceding one. Each presynaptic action potential causes a phase change in the postsynaptic neuron, which depends on its position in the phase space. Those incoming periods that are able to synchronize the subthreshold oscillations, keep the phase of arrival of action potentials fixed along the chain. The original message reaches intact the last neuron provided that this phase allows the discharge of the transmembrane voltage.I the second case, we studied a neuronal network with connections to both long range and close neighbors, in which the subthreshold oscillations emerge from the collective activity apparent in the synaptic currents. The inhibitory neurons provide a rhythm to the excitability of the network. When inhibition is low, the likelihood of a global discharge of the neuronal population is high. In Chapter 3 we show how this rhythm causes a gap in the discharge frequency of neurons: either they pulse single spikes or they fire bursts of high intensity. The LFP phase determines the state of the neuronal network, coding the activity of the population: its minima indicate the simultaneous discharge of many neurons, while its maxima indicate the coexistence of bursts due to local decreases of inhibition at global states of excitation. In Chapter 4 we consider coupling between two neural networks in order to study the interaction between different rhythms. The oscillations indicate recurrence in the synchronization of collective activity, so that during these time windows a population optimizes its impact on a target network. When the rhythm of the emitter and receiver population differ significantly, the communication efficiency decreases as the phases of maximum response of each LFP signal do not maintain a constant difference between them.Finally, in Chapter 5 we studied how oscillations typical of the collective sleep state give rise to stochastic coherence. For an optimal noise intensity, modulated by the excitability of the network, the LFP reaches a maximal regularity leading to a refractory period of the neuronal population.In summary, this Thesis shows scenarios of interaction between action potentials, characteristics of the dynamics of individual neurons, and the subthreshold oscillations, outcome of the coupling between the cells and ubiquitous in the dynamics of neuronal populations . The results obtained provide functionality to these emerging rhythms, triggers of synchronization and modulator agents of the neuronal discharges and regulators of the communication between neuronal networks

Analyzing the competition of gamma rhythms with delayed pulse-coupled oscillators in phase representation

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The role of oscillation population activity in cortico-basal ganglia circuits.

The basal ganglia (BG) are a group of subcortical brain nuclei that are anatomically situated between the cortex and thalamus. Hitherto, models of basal ganglia function have been based solely on the anatomical connectivity and changes in the rate of neurons mediated by inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter interactions and modulated by dopamine. Depletion of striatal dopamine as occurs in Parkinson's Disease (PD) however, leads primarily to changes in the rhythmicity of basal ganglia neurons. The general aim of this thesis is to use frontal electrocorticogram (ECoG) and basal ganglia local field potential (LFP) recordings in the rat to further investigate the putative role for oscillations and synchronisation in these structures in the healthy and dopamine depleted brain. In the awake animal, lesion of the SNc lead to a dramatic increase in the power and synchronisation of P-frequency band oscillations in the cortex and subthalamic nucleus (STN) compared to the sham lesioned animal. These results are highly similar to those in human patients and provide further evidence for a direct pathophysological role for p-frequency band oscillations in PD. In the healthy, anaesthetised animal, LFPs recorded in the STN, globus pallidus (GP) and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) were all found to be coherent with the ECoG. A detailed analysis of the interdependence and direction of these activities during two different brain states, prominent slow wave activity (SWA) and global activation, lead to the hypothesis that there were state dependant changes in the dominance of the cortico-subthalamic and cortico-striatal pathways. Multiple LFP recordings in the striatum and GP provided further evidence for this hypothesis, as coherence between the ECoG and GP was found to be dependent on the striatum. Together these results suggest that oscillations and synchronisation may mediate information flow in cortico-basal ganglia networks in both health and disease

A new unifying account of the roles of neuronal entrainment

Rhythms are a fundamental and defining feature of neuronal activity in animals including humans. This rhythmic brain activity interacts in complex ways with rhythms in the internal and external environment through the phenomenon of ‘neuronal entrainment’, which is attracting increasing attention due to its suggested role in a multitude of sensory and cognitive processes. Some senses, such as touch and vision, sample the environment rhythmically, while others, like audition, are faced with mostly rhythmic inputs. Entrainment couples rhythmic brain activity to external and internal rhythmic events, serving fine-grained routing and modulation of external and internal signals across multiple spatial and temporal hierarchies. This interaction between a brain and its environment can be experimentally investigated and even modified by rhythmic sensory stimuli or invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation techniques. We provide a comprehensive overview of the topic and propose a theoretical framework of how neuronal entrainment dynamically structures information from incoming neuronal, bodily and environmental sources. We discuss the different types of neuronal entrainment, the conceptual advances in the field, and converging evidence for general principles

When do Bursts Matter in the Primary Motor Cortex? Investigating Changes in the Intermittencies of Beta Rhythms Associated With Movement States

Brain activity exhibits significant temporal structure that is not well captured in the power spectrum. Recently, attention has shifted to characterising the properties of intermittencies in rhythmic neural activity (i.e. bursts), yet the mechanisms regulating them are unknown. Here, we present evidence from electrocorticography recordings made from the motor cortex to show that the statistics of bursts, such as duration or amplitude, in beta frequency (14-30Hz) rhythms significantly aid the classification of motor states such as rest, movement preparation, execution, and imagery. These features reflect nonlinearities not detectable in the power spectrum, with states increasing in nonlinearity from movement execution to preparation to rest. Further, we show using a computational model of the cortical microcircuit, constrained to account for burst features, that modulations of laminar specific inhibitory interneurons are responsible for temporal organization of activity. Finally, we show that temporal characteristics of spontaneous activity can be used to infer the balance of cortical integration between incoming sensory information and endogenous activity. Critically, we contribute to the understanding of how transient brain rhythms may underwrite cortical processing, which in turn, could inform novel approaches for brain state classification, and modulation with novel brain-computer interfaces