PREDATION ON SCARLET MACAW (ARA MACAO CYANOPTERA) CHICKS BY COLLARED FOREST FALCONS (MICRASTUR SEMITORQUATUS) IN THE MAYA BIOSPHERE RESERVE, GUATEMALA

Abstract ∙ Through efforts of the Wildlife Conservation Society, poaching in an important Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao cyanoptera) nesting area in the Maya Biosphere Reserve in Guatemala had been reduced to zero by 2004. However, during long‐term monitoring of the nesting success of Scarlet Macaws in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, unexplained or unknown disappearance of chicks from nests was common despite the aforementioned reduction in poaching. To determine the cause of these disappearances, we installed five video camera surveillance systems in the nest cavities during the 2008 nesting season. Fatal attacks on chicks by Collared Forest Falcons (Micrastur semitorquatus) were recorded at three of these nests. This result highlights natural predation as a limiting factor for the recruitment of new individuals into the Scarlet Macaw population in the Maya Biosphere Reserve even when poaching is suppressed.Resumen ∙ Depredación de pichones de Guacamayas Rojas (Ara macao cyanoptera) por Halcones Selváticos de Collar (Micrastur semitorquatus) en la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya, Guatemala A través de los esfuerzos de la Wildlife Conservation Society, el robo de pichones de Guacamayas Rojas (Ara macao cyanoptera) en una importante zona de anidación de la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya en Guatemala ha sido reducido a cero desde el año 2004. Sin embargo, durante el monitoreo a largo plazo del éxito de anidación de las guacamayas rojas en la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya, la desaparición por razones desconocidas de pichones de los nidos fue común a pesar de la reducción de robos anteriormente mencionada. Para determinar la causa de estas desapariciones, instalamos cinco sistemas de vigilancia de cámaras de video en los nidos durante la temporada de anidación de 2008. En tres de estos cinco nidos se registraron ataques fatales contra pichones por parte del Halcón Selvático de Collar (Micrastur semitorquatus). Este resultado destaca la depredación natural como un factor limitante para el reclutamiento de nuevos individuos en la población de Guacamayas Rojas en la Reserva de la Biosfera Maya, incluso cuando se suprime el robo de pichones.

Avian cerebellar floccular fossa size is not a proxy for flying ability in birds

Extinct animal behavior has often been inferred from qualitative assessments of relative brain region size in fossil endocranial casts. For instance, flight capability in pterosaurs and early birds has been inferred from the relative size of the cerebellar flocculus, which in life protrudes from the lateral surface of the cerebellum. A primary role of the flocculus is to integrate sensory information about head rotation and translation to stabilize visual gaze via the vestibulo-occular reflex (VOR). Because gaze stabilization is a critical aspect of flight, some authors have suggested that the flocculus is enlarged in flying species. Whether this can be further extended to a floccular expansion in highly maneuverable flying species or floccular reduction in flightless species is unknown. Here, we used micro computed-tomography to reconstruct “virtual” endocranial casts of 60 extant bird species, to extract the same level of anatomical information offered by fossils. Volumes of the floccular fossa and entire brain cavity were measured and these values correlated with four indices of flying behavior. Although a weak positive relationship was found between floccular fossa size and brachial index, no significant relationship was found between floccular fossa size and any other flight mode classification. These findings could be the result of the bony endocranium inaccurately reflecting the size of the neural flocculus, but might also reflect the importance of the flocculus for all modes of locomotion in birds. We therefore conclude that the relative size of the flocculus of endocranial casts is an unreliable predictor of locomotor behavior in extinct birds, and probably also pterosaurs and non-avian dinosaurs

Factors influencing affiliative and stereotypical behaviour expression in eight couples of scarlet macaw (Ara macao) from a conservation breeding centre in Costa Rica

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária, área científica de ClínicaABSTRACT - The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is a threatened species that inhabits tropical/subtropical forests in the New World Tropics. It forms complex social groups, consisting of several monogamous couples that reproduce seasonally in existing tree cavities. Habitat loss, poaching for pet trade, and persecution as an agricultural pest are among some of the threats the species faces in Central America. Several in situ and ex situ conservation efforts have been employed, including captive breeding for subsequent reintroduction into the wild. Captive environmental conditions must allow the display of natural behaviours, as this promotes general welfare and reproductive efforts. This study aimed to identify factors that may positively or negatively influence the expression of both affiliative and stereotypical behaviours in captivity. The behaviour of eight couples from a breeding centre in Alajuela, Costa Rica, was measured using interval-sampling, all-occurrence recording within the intervals, and a space use function with the help of the ZooMonitor app. To test this influence, both activity-budgets and differences between couples and time of observation (presence of sufficient shade; day time; length of time the couple had been together; time since last meal) were evaluated. Comfort behaviours accounted for the majority of observations. All couples exhibited social affiliative behaviours, while social agonistic ones were rarely observed. Couples with less shade exhibited more social affiliative behaviours, and the macaws were more likely to engage in affiliative and stereotypical behaviours in the afternoon. The negative influence of the feeding schedule in the welfare of the population is presumed, as the more time passed since they were fed, significantly stereotypic behaviours were exhibited, and fewer affiliative ones. Some recommendations can be made to refine captive conditions of the animals under observation, like foraging enrichment practices tailored to the macaw population's needs, associated with food preparation away from enclosures and the development of species specific diets, contributing to improve their welfare. Therefore, the identification and correction of negative environmental factors may promote welfare and breeding success rates in breeding programmes, having important implications for the conservation of the species as a wholeRESUMO - Fatores que Influenciam a Expressão de Comportamentos Afiliativos e Estereotipados em Oito Casais de Araras-Escarlate (Ara macao) num Centro de Reprodução para Conservação na Costa Rica - A Arara-Escarlate (Ara macao) é uma espécie ameaçada que habita as florestas tropicais/subtropicais do Novo Mundo. Forma grupos sociais complexos, compostos por vários casais monogâmicos que se reproduzem sazonalmente em cavidades arbóreas. A perda de habitat, a caça furtiva para comercialização e a perseguição como praga agrícola estão entre as ameaças da espécie na América Central. Inúmeros projetos de conservação in situ e ex situ foram implementados, incluindo a criação em cativeiro para reintrodução na natureza. As condições ambientais em cativeiro devem permitir a exibição de comportamentos naturais, uma vez que estes promovem o bem-estar geral e a reprodução. Este estudo visou identificar fatores que podem influenciar positiva ou negativamente a expressão de comportamentos afiliativos e estereotipados em cativeiro. O comportamento de oito casais num centro de reprodução em Alajuela, Costa Rica, foi mensurado utilizando amostragem intervalada, registo de ocorrências importantes entre os intervalos, e a sua localização espacial, com a ajuda da aplicação ZooMonitor. Para testar esta influência, tanto os “activity-budgets”, como as diferenças entre casais e o momento da observação (presença de sombra suficiente; altura do dia; duração da união do casal; tempo passado desde a última refeição) foram avaliados. Os comportamentos de conforto representaram a maioria das observações. Todos os casais exibiram comportamentos afiliativos, enquanto que raramente foram observados os agonísticos. Casais com menos sombra exibiram mais comportamentos afiliativos, e as araras revelaram-se mais suscetíveis de exibir comportamentos afiliativos e estereotipados, à tarde. Pressupõem-se a influência negativa do plano alimentar no bem-estar da população, pois quanto mais tempo passou desde a sua alimentação estas exibiram significativamente mais comportamentos estereotipados, e menos comportamentos afiliativos. Algumas recomendações podem ser feitas para aprimorar o ambiente cativo dos animais observados, como práticas de enriquecimento ambiental alimentar adaptadas às necessidades da população, em associação com a preparação de alimentos fora do recinto e, o desenvolvimento de dietas específicas, contribuindo para a melhoria do seu bem-estar. Assim, a identificação e correção de fatores ambientais negativos pode promover o bem-estar e a taxa de sucesso reprodutivo em programas de reprodução, com implicações relevantes para a conservação da espécie como um todo.N/

Macaw Cam: Exploratory Camera Trap Techniques for Monitoring and Conservation of Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) Nests

In this study, we explored new, low-cost camera trap techniques to monitor Scarlet Macaws in one of their last two self-sustaining habitats in Costa Rica. Camera trap monitors have begun to produce new insights in avian research and we use them not only because Macaws are threatened, but their imagery can be used to enhance the public’s understanding of the connections between science and conservation efforts. We mounted camera units on two trees with nesting Macaws in Costa Rica’s Carara National Park and monitored one nest remotely for seven consecutive months

Chromosome Painting in Neotropical Long- and Short-Tailed Parrots (Aves, Psittaciformes): Phylogeny and Proposal for a Putative Ancestral Karyotype for Tribe Arini.

: Most Neotropical Psittacidae have a diploid number of 2n = 70, and a dichotomy in chromosome patterns. Long-tailed species have biarmed macrochromosomes, while short-tailed species have telo/acrocentric macrochromosomes. However, the use of chromosome painting has demonstrated that karyotype evolution in Psittacidae includes a high number of inter/intrachromosomal rearrangements. To determine the phylogeny of long- and short-tailed species, and to propose a putative ancestral karyotype for this group, we constructed homology maps of Pyrrhura frontalis (PFR) and Amazona aestiva (AAE), belonging to the long- and short-tailed groups, respectively. Chromosomes were analyzed by conventional staining and fluorescent in situ hybridization using whole chromosome paints of Gallus gallus and Leucopternis albicollis. Conventional staining showed a karyotype with 2n = 70 in both species, with biarmed macrochromosomes in PFR and telo/acrocentric chromosomes in AAE. Comparison of the results with the putative avian ancestral karyotype (PAK) showed fusions in PFR of PAK1p/PAK4q (PFR1) and PAK6/PAK7 (PFR6) with a paracentric inversion in PFR6. However, in AAE, there was only the fusion between PAK6/7 (AAE7) with a paracentric inversion. Our results indicate that PFR retained a more basal karyotype than long-tailed species previously studied, and AAE a more basal karyotype for Neotropical Psittacidae analyzed so far

Chromosomal Evolution in the Phylogenetic Context: A Remarkable Karyotype Reorganization in Neotropical Parrot Myiopsitta monachus (Psittacidae).

Myiopsitta monachus is a small Neotropical parrot (Psittaciformes: Arini Tribe) from subtropical and temperate regions of South America. It has a diploid chromosome number 2n = 48, different from other members of the Arini Tribe that have usually 70 chromosomes. The species has the lowest 2n within the Arini Tribe. In this study, we combined comparative chromosome painting with probes generated from chromosomes of Gallus gallus and Leucopternis albicollis, and FISH with bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) selected from the genome library of G. gallus with the aim to shed light on the dynamics of genome reorganization in M. monachus in the phylogenetic context. The homology maps showed a great number of fissions in macrochromosomes, and many fusions between microchromosomes and fragments of macrochromosomes. Our phylogenetic analysis by Maximum Parsimony agree with molecular data, placing M. monachus in a basal position within the Arini Tribe, together with Amazona aestiva (short tailed species). In M. monachus many chromosome rearrangements were found to represent autopomorphic characters, indicating that after this species split as an independent branch, an intensive karyotype reorganization took place. In addition, our results show that M. monachus probes generated by flow cytometry provide novel cytogenetic tools for the detection of avian chromosome rearrangements, since this species presents breakpoints that have not been described in other species

In silico identification and characterization of novel microsatellite loci for the Blue-and-yellow Macaw Ara ararauna (Linnaeus, 1758) (Psittaciformes, Psittacidae)

The illegal trade is a major threat to many bird species, and parrots are common victims of this activity. Domestic and international pet markets are interested on different parrot species, such as the Blue-and-yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna). This South American macaw is not globally threatened, but is under protection from over-exploitation. This study aimed to identify and characterize novel microsatellite loci for population and parentage analysis of A. ararauna. Scaffold sequences of Ara macao available in the NCBI database were used for microsatellite searches using MsatCommander software. We tested a total of 28 loci, from which 25 were polymorphic, one was monomorphic, and two did not generated amplification products. For polymorphic loci, the mean number of alleles was 8.24 (4 – 15 alleles per locus), the observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.333 to 0.917, and the expected heterozygosity from 0.353 to 0.890. The paternity exclusion probability and identity probability were highly discriminatory. Thus, these novel microsatellite markers can be useful for population assignment and paternity tests, helping the authorities to manage macaws from the illegal trafficking and control commercial breeders

Parasitological Survey On Birds At Some Selected Brazilian Zoos

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)A parasitological survey was conducted at some zoos in the states of Sao Paulo and Parana, Brazil, from 2009 to 2011. Several groups of birds were surveyed for fecal samples, but the most important was Psittacidae. Among the parasites, Eimeria (coccidian) and Capillaria, Ascaridia and Heterakis (nematodes) were observed in almost one third of the samples. Presence of a rich parasite fauna associated with captive birds seems to be an effect of captivity, since data on free-ranging birds indicate few or virtually no parasites at all. The discovery of new coccidian species during this survey reveals the need of more research on the subject as even well-known bird species have unknown parasites, but caution must be exercised in order to avoid descriptions of pseudoparasites.2418791Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES

HYACINTH MACAWS (ANODORHYNCHUS HYACINTHINUS, PSITTACIDAE) FEEDING ON TERMITES

Abstract ∙ Hyacinth Macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) feed largely on palm seeds and fruits. Here, we report a pair of Hyacinth Macaws feeding on termites. We visited the nesting tree of a pair of Hyacinth Macaws at the southern border of the Brazilian Pantanal on a monthly basis during one year. Macaws were present during four of these visits, and we recorded them foraging on arboreal termites in their nesting tree during one of the visits. Using their beaks, both macaw individuals repeatedly broke away bark pieces from decaying branches, and handled them with beak and feet to ingest termites found on the inner side of the bark. Nesting in decaying trees likely increases opportunities for Hyacinth Macaws to find termites, and the feeding behavior of these macaws indicates that they are familiar with and able to consume termites. This is the first report of termite consumption by this species.Resumo ∙ Arara‐azul‐grande (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, Psittacidae) comendo cupins Indivíduos de Arara‐azul‐grande (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) consomem principalmente sementes de palmeiras e frutos. Reportamos aqui um casal de Araras‐azuis‐grandes consumindo cupins. Visitamos uma árvore de nidificação na borda sul do Pantanal brasileiro mensalmente durante um ano. As araras estavam presentes em quatro visitas, e registramos consumo de cupins presentes na árvore de nidificação em uma visita. As araras repetidamente retiravam com o bico pedaços de casca de ramos podres, e manuseavam os pedaços com o bico e os pés para ingerir cupins presentes na parte interna da casca. Nidificar em árvores senescentes provavelmente aumenta a oportunidade dessas araras encontrarem cupins, e o comportamento alimentar delas indica familiaridade e habilidade em consumilos. Esse é o primeiro registro de consumo de cupins por esta espécie.